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/F4 22.8 Tf 78.526 622.39 Td 0.000 Tc(TOOLS FOR CONVIVIALITY)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf -64.889 -53.24 Td(Acknowledgments)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Introduction)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(I Two Watersheds)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(II Convivial Reconstruction)Tj
-0 -26.4 Td(III The Multiple Balance)Tj
0 -26.4 Td( 1.)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( Biological Degradation)Tj
/F4 11 Tf 0 -26.4 Td( 2.)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( Radical Monopoly)Tj
/F4 11 Tf 0 -26.4 Td( 3.)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( Overprogramming)Tj
/F4 11 Tf 0 -26.4 Td( 4.)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( Polarization)Tj
/F4 11 Tf 0 -26.4 Td( 5.)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( Obsolescence)Tj
/F4 11 Tf 0 -26.4 Td( 6.)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( Frustration)Tj
/F4 11 Tf 0 -26.4 Td(IV Recovery)Tj
0 -26.4 Td( 1.)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( The Demythologization of Science)Tj
/F4 11 Tf 0 -26.4 Td( 2.)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( The Rediscovery of Language)Tj
/F4 11 Tf 0 -26.4 Td( 3.)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( The Recovery of Legal Procedure)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 135.313 687 Td 0.000 Tc(V Political Inversion)Tj
0 -26.4 Td( 1.)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( Myths and Majorities)Tj
/F4 11 Tf 0 -26.4 Td( 2.)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( From Breakdown to Chaos)Tj
/F4 11 Tf 0 -26.4 Td( 3.)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( Insight into Crisis)Tj
/F4 11 Tf 0 -26.4 Td( 4.)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( Sudden Change)Tj
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/F5 15.8 Tf 163.463 655.76 Td 0.000 Tc(Acknowledgments)Tj
/F4 11 Tf -163.463 -53.768 Td(The multidimensional analysis of ceilings for industrial growth was first formulated in a Spanish)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(document co-authored by Valentina Borremans and myself and submitted as a guideline for a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(meeting of two dozen Chilean socialists and other Latin Americans at CIDOC \(the Center for)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Intercultural Documentation\) in Cuernavaca, Mexico. The next version was presented at the Zeno)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Symposium organized by Professor Richard Wollheim in Cyprus. It was published in)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( Esprit,)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( Paris,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(March 1972, with criticisms by Th. Adam, Pierre Caussat, J. P. Chevenement, Paul Fraisse, Yves)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Goussault, Pierre Kende, J. W. Lapierre, Michel Panoff, Henri Pequignot, Jean Marie Domenach, and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Paul Thibaud. A third version served me and my deceased friend Greer Taylor as the basis for our)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(participation in the Canadian Conference on the Law in January 1972 in Ottawa. Comments by David)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Weisstub, Nils Christie, Allen M. Linden, J. G. Castel, H. w. Arthurs, Jos} Antonio Viera-Gallo, J. C.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Smith, and Bonaventura de Sousa Santos, and other critical papers by jurists, will be published in)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(mid-1973 in Toronto. During the summer of 1972)Tj
/F5 11 Tf (,)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( participants in my CIDOC seminar contributed)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(very helpful papers. I'm especially grateful for the assistance of John Bradley, John Brewer, Jos})Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Maria and Veronica Bulnes, Martin Cohen, Irene Curbelo de Diaz, Dennis Detzel, Joseph Fitzpatrick,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Amnon Goldworth, Conrad Johnson, Hartmut von Hentig, John MacKnight, Michael Maccoby, Leslie)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Marcus, Francisco Mir6 Quesada, Marie-No\30lle Monteil, William Ophuls, Marta H. Reed, Everett)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Reimer, Francisco Varela, Etienne Verne, Jacques Vidal and German Zabala. Dennis Sullivan has)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(patiently and critically assisted me in editing the final version. After I had delivered this manuscript to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the publisher, I received valuable suggestions from J.P. Naik and his friends in India. These have)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(seeped into the text to the extent this can happen in the correction of proofs. Second only to Valentina)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Borremans and Greer Taylor, Heinz von Foerster, Erich Fromm, Hermann Schwember and Abrah!n)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Diaz Gonzales have exerted the most decisive influence on the formulation of my ideas.)Tj
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/F5 15.8 Tf 182.376 655.76 Td 0.000 Tc(Introduction)Tj
/F4 11 Tf -182.376 -53.768 Td(During the next several years I intend to work on an epilogue to the industrial age. I want to trace the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(changes in language, myth, ritual, and law which took place in the current epoch of pack-aging and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of schooling. I want to describe the fading monopoly of the industrial mode of production and the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(vanishing of the industrially generated professions this mode of production serves.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Above all I want to show that two-thirds of mankind still can avoid passing through the industrial)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(age, by choosing right now a postindustrial balance in their mode of production which the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(hyperindustrial nations will be forced to adopt as an alternative to chaos. To prepare for this task I)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(submit this essay for critical comment.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(In its present form this book is the result of conversations at CIDOC in Cuernavaca during the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(summer of 1972)Tj
/F5 11 Tf (.)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( Participants in my seminar will recognize their ideas, and often their words. I ask)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(my collaborators to accept my sincere thanks, especially for their written contributions.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(This essay has become too long to appear as an article and too intricate to be read in several)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(installments. It is a progress report. I respectfully thank Ruth Nanda Anshen for issuing this tract as a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(volume, in)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( World Perspectives,)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( published by Harper & Row.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(For several years at CIDOC in Cuernavaca we have conducted critical research on the monopoly of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the industrial mode of production and have tried to define conceptually alternative modes that would)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(fit a postindustrial age. During tine late sixties this research centered on educational devices. By 1970)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(we had found that:)Tj
36 -26.4 Td(1. Universal education through compulsory schooling is not possible.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(2. Alternative devices for the production and marketing of mass education are)Tj
-0 -13.2 Td(technically more feasible and ethically less tolerable than compulsory graded schools.)Tj
-0 -13.2 Td(Such new educational arrangements are now on the verge of replacing traditional)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(school systems in rich and in poor countries. They are potentially more effective in)Tj
-0 -13.2 Td(the conditioning of job-holders and consumers in an industrial economy. They are)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(therefore more attractive for the management of present societies, more seductive for)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the people, and insidiously destructive of fundamental values.)Tj
-0 -26.4 Td(3. A society committed to high levels of shared learning and critical personal)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(intercourse must set pedagogical limits on industrial growth.)Tj
-36 -26.4 Td(I have published the results of this research in a previous volume of)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( World Perspectives,)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( entitled)Tj
/F6 11 Tf 0 -13.2 Td(Deschooling Society.)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( I clarified some of the points left ill defined in that book by writing an article)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(published in the)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( Saturday Review)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( of April 19, 1971.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Our analysis of schooling has led us to recognize the mass production of education as a paradigm for)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(other industrial enterprises, each producing a service commodity, each organized as a public utility,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(and each defining its output as a basic necessity. At first our attention was drawn to the compulsory)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(insurance of professional health care, and to systems of public transport, which tend to become)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(compulsory once traffic rolls above a certain speed. We found that the industrialization of any service)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(agency leads to destructive side effects analogous to the unwanted secondary results well known from)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the overproduction of goods. we had to face a set of limits to growth in the service sector Of any)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(society as inescapable as the limits inherent in the industrial production of artifacts. we concluded that)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(a set of limits to industrial growth is well formulated only if these limits apply both to goods and to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(services which are produced in an industrial mode. So we set out to clarify these limits.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(I here submit the concept of a multidimensional balance of human life which can serve as a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(framework for evaluating man's relation to his tools. In each of several dimensions of this balance it is)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(possible to identify a natural scale. When an enterprise grows beyond a certain point on this scale, it)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(first frustrates the end for which it was originally designed, and then rapidly becomes a threat to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(society itself. These scales must be identified and the parameters of human endeavors within which)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(human life remains viable must be explored.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Society can be destroyed when further growth of mass production renders the milieu hostile, when it)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(extinguishes the free use of the natural abilities of society's members, when it isolates people from)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(each other and locks them into a man-made shell, when it undermines the texture of community by)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(promoting extreme social polarization and splintering specialization, or when cancerous acceleration)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(enforces social change at a rate that rules out legal, cultural, and political precedents as formal)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(guidelines to present behavior. Corporate endeavors which thus threaten society cannot be tolerated.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(At this point it becomes irrelevant whether an enterprise is nominally owned by individuals,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(corporations, or the slate, because no form of management can make such fundamental destruction)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(serve a social purpose.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Our present ideologies are useful to clarify the contradictions which appear in a society which relies)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(on the capitalist control of industrial production; they do not, however, provide the necessary)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(framework for analyzing the crisis in the industrial mode of production itself. I hope that one day a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(general theory of industrialization will be stated with precision, that it will be formulated in terms)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(compelling enough to withstand the test of criticism. Its concepts ought to provide a common)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(language for people in opposing parties who need to engage in the assessment of social programs or)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(technologies, and who want to restrain the power of man's tools when they tend to overwhelm man)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(and his goals. Such a theory should help people invert the present structure of major institutions. I)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(hope that this essay will enhance the formulation of such a theory.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(It is now difficult to imagine a modern society in which industrial growth is balanced and kept in)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(check by several complementary, distinct, and equally scientific modes of production. Our vision of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the possible and the feasible is so restricted by industrial expectations that any alternative to more)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(mass production sounds like a return to past oppression or like a Utopian design for noble savages. In)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(fact, however, the vision of new possibilities requires only the recognition that scientific discoveries)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(can be useful in at least two opposite ways. The first leads to specia- lization of functions,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(institutionalization of values and centralization of power and turns people into the accessories of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(bureaucracies or machines. The second enlarges the range of each person's competence, control, and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(initiative, limited only by other individuals' claims to an equal range of power and freedom.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(To formulate a theory about a future society both very modern and not dominated by industry, it will)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(be necessary to recognize natural scales and limits. We must come to admit that only within limits can)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(machines take the place of slaves; beyond these limits they lead to a new kind of serfdom. Only)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(within limits can education fit people into a man-made environment: beyond these limits lies the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(universal schoolhouse, hospital ward, or prison. Only within limits ought politics to be concerned)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(with the distribution of maximum industrial outputs, rather than with equal inputs of either energy or)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(information. Once these limits are recognized, it becomes possible to articulate the triadic relationship)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(between persons, tools, and a new collectivity.)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( Such a society, in which modern technologies serve)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(politically interrelated individuals rather than managers, I will call "convivial.")Tj
/F4 11 Tf 0 -26.4 Td(After many doubts, and against the advice of friends whom I respect,)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( I have chosen "convivial" as a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(technical term to designate a modern society of responsibly limited tools.)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( In part this choice was)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(conditioned by the desire to continue a discourse which had started with its Spanish cognate. The)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(French cognate has been given technical meaning \(for the kitchen\) by Brillat-Savarin in his)Tj
/F6 11 Tf 0 -13.2 Td(Physiology of Taste: Meditations on Transcendental Gastronomy.)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( This specialized use of the term in)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(French might explain why it has already proven effective in the unmistakably different and equally)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(specialized context in which it will appear in this essay. I am aware that in English "convivial" now)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(seeks the company of tipsy jollyness, which is distinct from that indicated by the OED and opposite to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the austere meaning of modern)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( "eutrapelia,")Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( which I intend. By applying the term "convivial" to tools)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(rather than to people, I hope to forestall confusion.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td("Austerity," which says something about people, has also been degraded and has acquired a bitter)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(taste, while for Aristotle or Aquinas it marked the foundation of friendship. In the)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( Summa Theologica,)Tj
/F4 11 Tf 0 -13.2 Td(II, II, in the 186th question, article 5, Thomas deals with disciplined and creative playfulness. In his)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(third response he defines "austerity" as a virtue which does not exclude all enjoyments, but only those)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(which are distracting from or destructive of personal relatedness. For Thomas "austerity" is a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(complementary part of a more embracing virtue, which he calls friendship or joyfulness. It is the fruit)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of an apprehension that things or tools could destroy rather than enhance)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( eutrapelia)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( \(or graceful)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(playfulness\) in personal relations. \()Tj
/F6 11 Tf (Hugo v. Rahner, Man at Play, New York, 1972.)Tj
/F4 11 Tf (\))Tj
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/F5 15.8 Tf -53.279 -32.842 Td(Two Watersheds)Tj
/F4 11 Tf -168.524 -53.768 Td(The year 1913 marks a watershed in the history of modern medicine. Around that year a patient began)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(to have more than a fifty-fifty chance that a graduate of a medical school would provide him with a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(specifically effective treatment \(if, of course, he was suffering from one of the standard diseases)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(recognized by the medical science of the time\). Many shamans and herb doctors familiar with local)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(diseases and remedies and trusted by their clients had always had equal or better results.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Since then medicine has gone on to define what constitutes disease and its treatment. The Westernized)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(public learned to demand effective medical practice as defined by the progress of medical science. For)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the first time in history doctors could measure their efficiency against scales which they themselves)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(had devised. This progress was due to a new perspective of the origins of some ancient scourges;)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(water could be purified and infant mortality lowered; rat control could disarm the plague; treponemas)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(could be made visible under the microscope and Salvarsan could eliminate them with statistically)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(defined risks of poisoning the patient; syphilis could be avoided, or recognized and cured by rather)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(simple procedures; diabetes could be diagnosed and self-treatment with insulin could prolong the life)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of the patient. Paradoxically, the simpler the tools became, the more the medical profession insisted)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(on a monopoly of their application, the longer became the training demanded before a medicine man)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(was initiated into the legitimate use of the simplest tool, and the more the entire population felt)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(dependent on the doctor. Hygiene turned from being a virtue into a professionally organized ritual at)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the altar of a science.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Infant mortality was lowered, common forms of infection were prevented or treated, some forms of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(crisis intervention became quite effective. The spectacular decline in mortality and morbidity was due)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(to changes in sanitation, agriculture, marketing, and general attitudes toward life. But though these)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(changes were sometimes influenced by the attention that engineers paid to new facts discovered by)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(medical science, they could only occasionally be ascribed to the intervention of doctors.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Indirectly, industrialization profited from the new effectiveness attributed to medicine; work)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(attendance was raised, and with it the claim to efficiency on the job. The destructiveness of new tools)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(was hidden from public view by new techniques of providing spectacular treatments for those who)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(fell victims to industrial violence such as the speed of cars, tension on the job, and poisons in the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(environment.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The sickening side effects of modern medicine became obvious after World War II, but doctors)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(needed time to diagnose drug resistant microbes or genetic damage caused by prenatal X-rays as new)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(epidemics. The claim made by George Bernard Shaw a generation earlier, that doctors had ceased to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(be healers and were assuming control over the patient's entire life, could still be regarded as a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(caricature. Only in the mid-fifties did it become evident that medicine had passed a second watershed)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(and had itself created new kinds of disease.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Foremost among iatrogenic \(doctor-induced\) diseases was the pretense of doctors that they provided)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(their clients with superior health. First, social planners and doctors became its victims. Soon this)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(epidemic aberration spread to society at large. Then, during the last fifteen years, professional)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(medicine became a major threat to health. Huge amounts of money were spent to stem immeasurable)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(damage caused by medical treatments. The cost of healing was dwarfed by the cost of extending sick)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(life; more people survived longer months with their lives hanging on a plastic tube, imprisoned in iron)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(lungs, or hooked onto kidney machines. New sickness was defined and institutionalized; the cost of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(enabling people to survive in unhealthy cities and in sickening jobs skyrocketed. The monopoly of the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(medical profession was extended over an increasing range of everyday occurrences in every man's)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(life.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The exclusion of mothers, aunts, and other nonprofessionals from the care of their pregnant,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(abnormal, hurt, sick, or dying relatives and friends resulted in new demands for medical services at a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(much faster rate than the medical establishment could deliver. As the value of)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( services)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( rose, it became)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(almost impossible for people to)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( care.)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( Simultaneously, more conditions were defined as needing)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(treatment by creating new specializations or paraprofessions to keep the tools under the control of the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(guild.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(At the time of the second watershed, preservation of the sick life of medically dependent people in an)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(unhealthy environment became the principal business of the medical profession. Costly prevention)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(and costly treatment became increasingly the privilege of those individuals who through previous)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(consumption of medical services had established a claim to more of it. Access to specialists, prestige)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(hospitals, and life-machines goes preferentially to those people who live in large cities, where the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(cost of basic disease prevention, as of water treatment and pollution control, is already exceptionally)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(high. The higher the per capita cost of prevention, the higher, paradoxically, became the per capita)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(cost of treatment. The prior consumption of costly prevention and treatment establishes a claim for)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(even more extraordinary care. Like the modern school system, hospital-based health care fits the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(principle that those who have will receive even more and those who have not will be taken for the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(little that they have. In schooling this means that high consumers of education will get postdoctoral)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(grants, while dropouts learn that they have failed. In medicine the same principle assures that)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(suffering will increase with increased medical care; the rich will be given more treatment for)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(iatrogenic diseases and the poor will just suffer from them.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(After this second turning point, the unwanted hygienic by-products of medicine began to affect entire)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(populations rather than just individual men. In rich countries medicine began to sustain the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(middle-aged until they became decrepit and needed more doctors and increasingly complex medical)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(tools. In poor countries, thanks to modern medicine, a larger percentage of children began to survive)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(into adolescence and more women survived more pregnancies. Populations increased beyond the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(capacities of their environments and the restraints and efficiencies of their cultures to nurture them.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Western doctors abused drugs for the treatment of diseases with which native populations had learned)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(to live. As a result they bred new strains of disease with which modern treatment, natural immunity,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(and traditional culture could not cope. On a world-wide scale, but particularly in the U.S.A., medical)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(care concentrated on breeding a human stock that was fit only for domesticated life within an)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(increasingly more costly, man-made, scientifically controlled environment. One of the main speakers)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(at the 1970 AMA convention exhorted her pediatric colleagues to consider each newborn baby as a)Tj
/F6 11 Tf 0 -13.2 Td(patient)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( until the child could be certified as healthy. Hospital-born, formula-fed, antibiotic-stuffed)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(children thus grow into adults who can breathe the air, eat the food, and survive the lifelessness of a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(modern city, who will breed and raise at almost any cost a generation even more dependent on)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(medicine.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Bureaucratic medicine spread over the entire world. In 1968, after twenty years of Mao's regime, the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Medical College of Shanghai had to conclude that it was engaged in the training of "so-called)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(first-rate doctors ... who ignore five million peasants and serve only minorities in cities. They create)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(large expenses for routine laboratory examinations . . . Describe huge amounts of antibiotics)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(unnecessarily . . . and in the absence of hospital or laboratory facilities have to limit themselves to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(explaining the mechanisms of the disease to people for whom they cannot do anything, and to whom)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(this explanation is irrelevant." In China this recognition led to a major institutional inversion. Today,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the same college reports that one million health workers have reached acceptable levels of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(competence. These health workers are laymen who in periods of low agricultural manpower needs)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(have attended short courses, starting with the dissection of pigs, gone on to the performance of routine)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(lab tests, the study of the elements of bacteriology, pathology, clinical medicine, hygiene, and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(acupuncture, and continued in apprenticeship with doctors or previously trained colleagues. These)Tj
0 -13.2 Td("barefoot doctors" remain at their work places but are excused occasionally when fellow workers)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(require their assistance. They have responsibility for environmental sanitation, for health education,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(immunization, first aid, primary medical care, post illness follow-up, as well as for gynecological)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(assistance, birth control, and abortion education. Ten years after the second watershed of Western)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(medicine had been acknowledged, China intends to have one fully competent health worker for every)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(hundred people. China has proved that a sudden inversion of a major institution is possible. It remains)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(to be seen if this deprofessionalization can be sustained against the overweening ideology of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(unlimited progress and pressures from classical doctors to incorporate their barefoot homonym as)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(part-time professionals on the bottom rung of a medical hierarchy.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(In the West during the sixties dissatisfaction with medicine grew in proportion to its cost, reaching the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(greatest intensity in the U.S.A. Rich foreigners flocked to the medical centers of Boston, Houston, and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Denver to seek exotic repair jobs, while the infant mortality of the U.S. poor remained comparable to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(that in some tropical countries of Africa and Asia. Only the very rich in the United States can now)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(afford what all people in poor countries have: personal attention around the deathbed. An American)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(can now spend in two days of private nursing the median yearly cash income of the world's)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(population.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Instead of exposing the systemic disorder, however, only the symptoms of "sick" medicine are now)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(publicly indicted in the United States. Spokesmen for the poor object to the capitalist prejudices of the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(AMA and the income of doctors. Community leaders object to the lack of community control over the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(delivery systems of professional health maintenance or of sick care, believing that laymen on hospital)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(boards can harness professional medics. Black spokesmen object to the concentration of research)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(grants on the types of disease which tend to strike the white, elderly, overfed foundation official who)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(approves them. They ask for research on sickle-cell anemia, which strikes only the black. The general)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(voter hopes that the end of the war in Vietnam will make more funds available for an increase of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(medical production. This general concern with symptoms, however, distracts attention from the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(malignant expansion of)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( institutional)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( health care which is at the root of the rising costs and demands)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(and the decline in wellbeing.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The crisis of medicine lies on a much deeper level than its symptoms reveal and is consistent with the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(present crisis of all industrial institutions. It results from the development of a professional complex)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(supported and exhorted by society to provide increasingly "better" health, and from the willingness of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(clients to serve as guinea pigs in this vain experiment. People have lost the right to declare themselves)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(sick; society now accepts their claims to sickness only after certification by medical bureaucrats.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(It is not strictly necessary to this argument to accept 1913 and 1955 as the two watershed years in)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(order to understand that early in the century medical practice emerged into an era of scientific)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(verification of its results. And later medical science itself became an alibi for the obvious damage)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(caused by the medical professional. At the first watershed the desirable effects of new scientific)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(discoveries were easily measured and verified. Germ-free water reduced infant mortality related to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(diarrhea, aspirin reduced the pain of rheumatism, and malaria could be controlled by quinine. Some)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(traditional cures were recognized as quackery, but, more importantly, the use of some simple habits)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(and tools spread widely. People began to understand the relationship between health and a balanced)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(diet, fresh air, calisthenics, pore water and soap. New devices ranging from toothbrushes to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Band-Aids and condoms became widely available. The positive contribution of modern medicine to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(individual health during the early part of the twentieth century can hardly be questioned.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(But then medicine began to approach the second watershed. Every year medical science reported a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(new breakthrough. Practitioners of new specialties rehabilitated some individuals suffering from rare)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(diseases. The practice of medicine became centered on the performance of hospital-based staffs.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Trust in miracle cures obliterated good sense and traditional wisdom on healing and health care. The)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(irresponsible use of drugs spread from doctors to the general public. The second watershed was)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(approached when the marginal utility of further professionalization declined, at least insofar as it can)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(be expressed in terms of the physical well-being of the largest number of people. The second)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(watershed was superseded when the marginal disutility increased as further monopoly by the medical)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(establishment became an indicator of more suffering for larger numbers of people. After the passage)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of this second watershed, medicine still claimed continued progress, as measured by the new)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(landmarks doctors set for them-selves and then reached: both predictable discoveries and costs. For)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(instance, a few patients survived longer with transplants of various organs. On the other hand, the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(total social cost exacted by medicine ceased to be measurable in conventional terms. Society can have)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(no quantitative standards by which to add up the negative value of illusion, social control, prolonged)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(suffering, loneliness, genetic deterioration, and frustration produced by medical treatment.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Other industrial institutions have passed through the same two watersheds. This is certainly true for)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the major social agencies that have been reorganized according to scientific criteria during the last)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(150 years. Education, the mails, social work, transportation, and even civil engineering have followed)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(this evolution. At first, new knowledge is applied to the solution of a clearly stated problem and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(scientific measuring sticks are applied to account for the new efficiency. But at a second point, the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(progress demonstrated in a previous achievement is used as a rationale for the exploitation of society)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(as a whole in the service of a value which is determined and constantly revised by an element of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(society, by one of its self-certifying professional \351lites.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(In the case of transportation it has taken almost a century to pass from an era served by motorized)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(vehicles to the era in which society has been reduced to virtual enslavement to the car. During the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(American Civil War steam power on wheels became effective. The new economy in transportation)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(enabled many people to travel by rail at the speed of a royal coach, and to do so with a comfort kings)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(had not dared dream of. Gradually, desirable locomotion was associated and finally identified with)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(high vehicular speeds. But when transportation had passed through its second watershed, vehicles had)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(created more distances than they helped to bridge; more time was used by the entire society for the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(sake of traffic than was "saved.")Tj
0 -26.4 Td(It is sufficient to recognize the existence of these two watersheds in order to gain a fresh perspective)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(on our present social crisis. In one decade several major institutions have moved jointly over their)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(second watershed. Schools are losing their claim to be effective tools to provide education; cars have)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(ceased to be effective tools for mass transportation; the assembly line has ceased to be an acceptable)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(mode of production.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The characteristic reaction of the sixties to the growing frustration was further technological and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(bureaucratic escalation. Self-defeating escalation of power became the core-ritual practiced in highly)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(industrialized nations. In this context the Vietnam war is both revealing and concealing. It makes this)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(ritual visible for the entire world in a narrow theatre of war, yet it also distracts attention)Tj
/F9 11 Tf ( from)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(same ritual being played out in many so-called peaceful arenas. The conduct of the war proves that a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(convivial army limited to bicycle speeds is served by the opponent's escalation of anonymous power.)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(And yet many Americans argue that the resources squandered on the war in the Far East could be)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(used effectively to overwhelm poverty at home. Others are anxious to use the $20 billion the war now)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(costs for increasing international development assistance from its present low of $2 billion. They fail)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(to grasp the underlying institutional structure common to a peaceful war on poverty and a bloody war)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(on dissidence. Both escalate what they are meant to eliminate.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(While evidence shows that more of the same leads to utter defeat, nothing less than more and more)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(seems worthwhile in a society infected by the growth mania. The desperate plea is not only for more)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(bombs and more police, more medical examinations and more teachers, but also for more information)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(and research. The editor-in-chief of the)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( Bulletin of Atomic Scientists)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( claims that most of our present)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(problems are the result of recently acquired knowledge badly applied, and concludes that the only)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(remedy for the mess created by this information is more of it. It has become fashionable to say that)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(where science and technology have created problems, it is only more scientific understanding and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(better technology that can carry us past them.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The cure for bad management is more management. The cure for specialized research is more costly)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(interdisciplinary research, just as the cure for polluted rivers is more costly nonpolluting detergents.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(The pooling of stores of information, the building up of a knowledge stock, the attempt to overwhelm)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(present problems by the introduction of more science is the ultimate attempt to solve a crisis by)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(escalation.)Tj
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/F5 19 Tf 218.106 678.992 Td 0.000 Tc(II)Tj
/F5 15.8 Tf -78.625 -32.842 Td(Convivial Reconstruction)Tj
/F4 11 Tf -139.481 -53.768 Td(The symptoms of accelerated crisis are widely recognized. Multiple attempts have been made to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(explain them. I believe that this crisis is rooted in a major twofold experiment which has failed, and I)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(claim that the resolution of the crisis begins with a recognition of the failure. For a hundred years we)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(have tried to make machines work for men and to school men for life in their service. Now it turns out)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(that machines do not "work" and that people cannot be schooled for a life at the service of machines.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(The hypothesis on which the experiment was built must now be discarded. The hypothesis was that)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(machines can replace slaves. The evidence shows that, used for this purpose, machines enslave men.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Neither a dictatorial proletariat nor a leisure mass can escape the dominion of constantly expanding)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(industrial tools.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The crisis can be solved only if we learn to invert the present deep structure of tools; if we give people)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(tools that guarantee their right to work with high, independent efficiency, thus simultaneously)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(eliminating the need for either slaves or masters and enhancing each person's range of freedom.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(People need new tools to work with rather than tools that "work" for them. They need technology to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(make the most of the energy and imagination each has, rather than more well-programmed energy)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(slaves.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(I believe that society must be reconstructed to enlarge the contribution of autonomous individuals and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(primary groups to the total effectiveness of a new system of production designed to satisfy the human)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(needs which it also determines. In fact, the institutions of industrial society do just the opposite. As)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the power of machines increases, the role of persons more and more decreases to that of mere)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(consumers.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Individuals need tools to move and to dwell. They need remedies for their diseases and means to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(communicate with one another. People cannot make all these things for themselves. They depend on)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(being supplied with objects and services which vary from culture to culture. Some people depend on)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the supply of food and others on the supply of ball bearings.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(People need not only to obtain things, they need above all the freedom to make things among which)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(they can live, to give shape to them according to their own tastes, and to put them to use in caring for)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(and about others. Prisoners in rich countries often have access to more things and services than)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(members of their families, but they have no say in how things are to be made and cannot decide what)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(to do with them. Their punishment consists in being deprived of what I shall call "conviviality." They)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(are degraded to the status of mere consumers.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(I choose the term "conviviality" to designate the opposite of industrial productivity. I intend it to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(mean autonomous and creative intercourse among persons, and the intercourse of persons with their)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(environment; and this in contrast with the conditioned response of persons to the demands made upon)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(them by others, and by a man-made environment. I consider conviviality to be individual freedom)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(realized in personal interdependence and, as such, an intrinsic ethical value. I believe that, in any)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(society, as conviviality is reduced below a certain level, no amount of industrial productivity can)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(effectively satisfy the needs it creates among society's members.)Tj
/F8 11 Tf 143.742 657.818 Td(Ivan Illich - Tools For Conviviality)Tj
295.026 -709 Td(12)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(Present institutional purposes, which hallow industrial productivity at the expense of convivial)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(effectiveness, are a major factor in the amorphousness and meaninglessness that plague contemporary)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(society. The increasing demand for products has come to define society's process. I will suggest how)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(this present trend can be reversed and how modern science and technology can be used to endow)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(human activity with unprecedented effectiveness. This reversal would permit the evolution of a life)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(style and of a political system which give priority to the protection, the maximum use, and the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(enjoyment of the one resource that is almost equally distributed among all people: personal energy)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(under personal control. I will argue that we can no longer live and work effectively without public)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(controls over tools and institutions that curtail or negate any person's right to the creative use of his or)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(her energy. For this purpose we need procedures to ensure that controls over the tools of society are)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(established and governed by political process rather than by decisions by experts.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The transition to socialism cannot be effected without an inversion of our present institutions and the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(substitution of convivial for industrial tools. At the same time, the retooling of society will remain a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(pious dream unless the ideals of socialist justice prevail. I believe that the present crisis of our major)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(institutions ought to be welcomed as a crisis of revolutionary liberation because our present)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(institutions abridge basic human freedom for the sake of providing people with more institutional)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(outputs. This world-wide crisis of world-wide institutions can lead to a new consciousness about the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(nature of tools and to majority action for their control. If tools are not controlled politically, they will)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(be managed in a belated technocratic response to disaster. Freedom and dignity will continue to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(dissolve into an unprecedented enslavement of man to his tools.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(As an alternative to technocratic disaster, I propose the vision of a convivial society. A convivial)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(society would be the result of social arrangements that guarantee for each member the most ample and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(free access to the tools of the community and limit this freedom only in favor of another member's)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(equal freedom.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(At present people tend to relinquish the task of envisaging the future to a professional \351lite. They)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(transfer power to politicians who promise to build up the machinery to deliver this future. They accept)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(a growing range of power levels in society when inequality is needed to maintain high outputs.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Political institutions themselves become draft mechanisms to press people into complicity with output)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(goals. What is right comes to be subordinated to what is good for institutions. Justice is debased to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(mean the equal distribution of institutional wares.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The individual's autonomy is intolerably reduced by a society that defines the maximum satisfaction)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of the maximum number as the largest consumption of industrial goods. Alternate political)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(arrangements would have the purpose of permitting all people to define the images of their own)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(future. New politics would aim principally to exclude the design of artifacts and rules that are)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(obstacles to the exercise of this personal freedom. Such politics would limit the scope of tools as)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(demanded by the protection of three values: survival, justice, and self-defined work. I take these)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(values to be fundamental to any convivial society, however different one such society might be from)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(another in practice, institutions, or rationale.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Each of these three values imposes its own limits on tools. The)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( conditions for survival)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( are necessary)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(but not sufficient to ensure justice; people can survive in prison. The)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( conditions for the just)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(distribution)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( of industrial outputs are necessary, but not sufficient to promote convivial production.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(People can be equally enslaved by their tools. The)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( conditions for convivial work)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( are structural)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(arrangements that make possible the just distribution of unprecedented power. A postindustrial)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(society must and can be so constructed that no one person's ability to express him- or herself in work)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(will require as a condition the enforced labor or the enforced learning or the enforced consumption of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(another.)Tj
/F8 11 Tf 143.742 682 Td(Ivan Illich - Tools For Conviviality)Tj
295.026 -709 Td(13)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(In an age of scientific technology, the convivial structure of tools is a necessity for survival in full)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(justice which is both distributive and participatory. This is so because science has opened new energy)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(sources. Competition for inputs must lead to destruction, while their central control in the hands of a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Leviathan would sacrifice equal control over inputs to the semblance of an equal distribution of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(outputs. Rationally designed convivial tools have become the basis for participatory justice.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(But this does not mean that the transition from our present to a convivial mode of production can be)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(accomplished without serious threats to the survival of many people. At present the relationship)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(between people and their tools is suicidally distorted. The survival of Pakistanis depends on Canadian)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(grain, and the survival of New Yorkers on world-wide exploitation of natural resources. The birth)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(pangs of a convivial world society will inevitably be violently painful for hungry Indians and for)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(helpless New Yorkers. I will later argue that the transition from the present mode of production,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(which is Overwhelmingly industrial, toward con viviality may start suddenly. But for the sake of the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(survival of many people it will be desirable that the transition does not happen all at once. I argue that)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(survival in justice is possible only at the cost of those sacrifices implicit in the adoption of a convivial)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(mode of production and the universal renunciation of unlimited progeny, affluence, and power on the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(part of both individuals and groups. This price cannot be extorted by some despotic Leviathan, nor)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(elicited by social engineering. People will rediscover the value of joyful sobriety and liberating)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(austerity only if they relearn to depend on each other rather than on energy slaves. The price for a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(convivial society will be paid only as the result of a political process which reflects and promotes the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(society-wide inversion of present industrial consciousness. This political process will find its)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(concrete expression not in some taboo, but in a series of temporary agreements on one or the other)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(concrete limitation of means, constantly adjusted under the pressure of conflicting insights and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(interests.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(In this volume I want to offer a methodology by which to recognize means which have turned into)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(ends. My subject is tools and not intentions. The choice of this subject makes it impossible to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(undertake several related, relevant, and tempting tasks because:)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(1. It would not serve my purpose to describe in detail any fictional community of the future. I want to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(provide guidelines for action, not for fantasy. A modern society, bounded for convivial living, could)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(generate a new flowering of surprises far beyond anyone's imagination and hope. I am not proposing a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Utopia, but a procedure that provides each community with the choice of its unique social)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(arrangements.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(2. I do not want to contribute to an engineering manual for the design of convivial institutions or)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(tools, nor do I want to engage in a sales campaign for what would be obviously a better technology.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(My purpose is to lay down criteria by which the manipulation of people for the sake of their tools can)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(be immediately recognized, and thus to exclude those artifacts and institutions which inevitably)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(extinguish a convivial life style. Paradoxically, a society of simple tools that allows men to achieve)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(purposes with energy fully under their own control is now difficult to imagine. Our imaginations have)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(been industrially deformed to conceive only what can be molded into an engineered system of social)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(habits that fit the logic of large-scale production. We have almost lost the ability to frame in fancy a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(world in which sound and shared reasoning sets limits to everybody's power to interfere with)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(anybody's equal power to shape the world.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The present world is divided into those who do not have enough and those who have more than)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(enough, those who are pushed off the road by cars and those who drive them. The have-nots are)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(miserable and the rich anxious to get more. A society whose members know what is enough might be)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(poor, but its members would be equally free. Men with industrially distorted minds cannot grasp the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(rich texture of personal accomplishments within the range of modern though limited tools. There is no)Tj
/F8 11 Tf 143.742 682 Td(Ivan Illich - Tools For Conviviality)Tj
295.026 -709 Td(14)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(room in their imaginations for the qualitative change that the acceptance of a stable-state industry)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(would mean; a society in which members are free from most of the multiple restraints of schedules)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(and therapies now imposed for the sake of growing tools. Much less do most of our contemporaries)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(experience the sober joy of life in this voluntary though relative poverty which lies within our grasp.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(3. I will focus on the structure of tools, not on the character structure of their users. The use of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(industrial tools stamps in an identical way the landscape of cities each having its own history and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(culture. Highways, hospital wards, classrooms, office buildings, apartments, and stores look)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(everywhere the same. Identical tools also promote the development of the same character types.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Policemen in patrol cars or accountants at computers look and act alike all over the world, while their)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(poor cousins using nightstick or pen are different from region to region. The progressive)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(homogenization of personalities and personal relationships cannot be stemmed without a retooling of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(society. Research on the social character traits that make retooling difficult or doubtful is)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(complementary to what I propose. But I am not postulating the creation of a new man as a condition)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(for a new society, nor am I pretending to know how either social character or cultures will change. A)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(pluralism of limited tools and of convivial commonweals would of necessity encourage a diversity of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(life styles.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(4. It would distract from the core of my argument if I were to deal with political strategies or tactics.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(With the possible exception of China under Mao, no present government could restructure society)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(along convivial lines. The managers of our major tools-nations, corporations, parties, structured)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(movements, professions-hold power. This power is vested in the maintenance of the growth-oriented)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(structures which they manipulate. These managers have the power to make major decisions; they can)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(generate new demands for the output of their tools and enforce the creation of new social labels to fit)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(them. They can even go so far as to limit the output of tools in the interest of maximizing benefits.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(But they have no power to reverse the basic structure of the institutional arrangements which they)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(manage.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The major institutions now optimize the output of large tools for lifeless people. Their inversion)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(implies institutions that would foster the use of individually accessible tools to support the meaningful)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(and responsible deeds of fully awake people. Turning basic institutions upside down and inside out is)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(what the adoption of a convivial mode of production would require. Such an inversion of society is)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(beyond the managers of present institutions.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Today's managers form a new class of men, selected for their character, competence, and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(interest-which enable them to both expand the productive society and promote the further operant)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(conditioning of their clients. They hold and manage power no matter who lives in the illusion that he)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(owns the tools. This class of power-holders must be eliminated, but this cannot be done by mass)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(slaughter or replacement. The new \351lite would only claim more legitimacy in the manipulation of the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(inherited structured power. Management can be done away with only by eliminating the machinery)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(that makes it necessary and, therefore, the demands for output that give it sway. In a convivial society)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(there is little need for replacing the chairman of the board.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(In a society in which power-both political and physical-is bounded and spread by political decision)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(there is place not only for a new flowering of products and characters, but also for a variety in forms)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of governance. Certainly, new tools would provide new options. Convivial tools rule out certain levels)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of power, compulsion, and programming, which are precisely those features that now tend to make all)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(governments look more or less alike. But the adoption of a convivial mode of production does not of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(itself mean that one specific form of government would be more fitting than another, nor does it rule)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(out a world federation, or agreements between nation-states, or communes, or many of the most)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(traditional forms of governance. I restrict myself to the description of basic structural criteria within)Tj
/F8 11 Tf 143.742 682 Td(Ivan Illich - Tools For Conviviality)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(which the retooling of society can be achieved.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(5. A methodology by which to recognize when corporate tools become destructive of society itself)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(requires the recognition of the value of distributory and participatory justice. I believe that my)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(succinct statement will be sufficient to identify necessary restraints on tools, but it will also preclude)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(that in this essay I reach any conclusion about a desirable degree of subordination of means to ends.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(6. The economics applicable to a postindustrial and convivial society can neither be ignored nor taken)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(for granted. In a society that accepts politically defined limits on all types of industrial growth, many)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(accepted terms will have to be redefined, but it is certain that in such a society inequality will not be)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(excluded. In fact, each individual's power to make effective changes would be greater than in)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(preindustrial or in industrial times. Though they would be bounded, common tools would be)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(incomparably more efficient than primitive, and more widely distributed than industrial, devices.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Their products would accrue more to some than to others. The task of keeping net transfer of power)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(within bounds requires the use of traditional as well as new economic devices. It will be argued that)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the limitation of tools cannot be effected before a corresponding new economic theory has been)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(elaborated and has become operational. This is correct. I do propose that we use a dimensional)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(analysis to obtain information about the major variables which can upset the balance of life, and that)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(we rely on political process to identify the significant dimensions which man can control. I therefore)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(propose an approach to the relationship between man's ends and his means in which the key units of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(economics come to signify a dimensionless set of factors. Economics useful for the inversion of our)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(present institutional structure starts out from politically defined limiting criteria. It is on these)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(negative design criteria for technological devices that I want to focus attention.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(A methodology, by which to recognize the public perversion of tools into purposes, encounters)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(resistance on the part of people who are used to measuring what is good in terms of dollars. Plato)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(knew that the bad statesman is he who believes that the art of measurement is universal, and who)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(jumbles together what is greater or smaller and what is more fit to the purpose. Our present attitudes)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(toward production have been formed over the centuries. Increasingly, institutions have not only)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(shaped our demands but also in the most literal sense our logic, or sense of proportion. Having come)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(to demand what institutions can produce, we soon believe that we cannot do without it.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The invention of education is an example of what I mean. We often forget that education acquired its)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(present sense only recently. It was unknown before the Reformation, except as that part of early)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(upbringing which is common to piglets, ducks, and men. It was clearly distinguished from the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(instruction needed by the young, and from the study in which some engaged later on in life and for)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(which a teacher was needed. Voltaire still called it a presumptuous neologism, used only by)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(pretentious schoolmasters.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The endeavor to put all men through successive stages of enlightenment is rooted deeply in alchemy,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the Great Art of the waning Middle Ages. John Amos Comenius, a Moravian bishop of the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(seventeenth century, a self-styled pansophist and pedagogue, is rightly considered one of the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(founders of the modern school. He was among the first to propose seven or twelve grades of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(compulsory learning. In his)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( Magna Didactica)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( he described schools as devices to "teach everybody)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(everything" and outlined a blueprint for the assembly-line production of knowledge, which according)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(to his method would make education cheaper and better and make growth into full humanity possible)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(for all. But Comenius was not only an early theoretician of mass production, he was an alchemist who)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(adapted the technical language of his craft to describe the art of rearing children. The alchemist)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(sought to refine base elements by graduating their spirits through twelve stages of successive)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(enlightenment, so that for their own and all the world's benefit they might be transformed into gold.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Of course, alchemists failed no matter how often they tried, but each time their "science" yielded new)Tj
/F8 11 Tf 143.742 682 Td(Ivan Illich - Tools For Conviviality)Tj
295.026 -709 Td(16)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(reasons for their failure, and they tried again.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The industrial mode of production was first fully rationalized in the manufacture of a new invisible)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(commodity, called "education." Pedagogy opened a new chapter in the history of the)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( Ars Magna)Tj
/F4 11 Tf 0 -13.2 Td(Education became the search for an alchemic process that would bring forth a new type of man who)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(would fit into an environment created by scientific magic. But no matter how much each generation)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(spent on its schools, it always turned out that the majority of people were certified as unfit for higher)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(grades of enlightenment and had to be discarded as unprepared for the good life in a man-made)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(world.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Not only has the redefinition of learning as schooling made schools seem necessary, it has also)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(compounded the poverty of the unschooled with discrimination against the uneducated. People who)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(have climbed up the ladder of schooling know where they dropped out and how uneducated they are.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Once they accept the authority of an agency to define and measure their level of knowledge, they)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(easily go on to accept the authority of other agencies to define for them their level of appropriate)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(health or mobility. It is difficult for them to identify the structural corruption of our major institutions.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Just as they come to believe in the value of the "knowledge stock" they acquired in school, so they)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(come to believe that higher speeds save time and that income levels define well-being or, as an)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(alternative, that the production of more services rather than more goods increases the quality of life.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The commodity called "education" and the institution called "school" make each other necessary. The)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(circle can be broken only by a widely shared insight that the institution has come to define the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(purpose. Values abstractly stated are reduced to mechanical processes that enslave men. This serfdom)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(can be broken only by the joyful self-recognition of the fool who assumes personal responsibility for)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(his folly.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The institutional definition of values has made it difficult to focus our attention on the deep structure)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of social means. It is hard to imagine that the division of sciences, of labor, and of professions has)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(gone too far. It is difficult to conceive of higher social effectiveness with lower industrial efficiency.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(To recognize the nature of desirable limits to specialization and output, we must focus our attention)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(on the industrially determined shape of our expectations. Only then can we recognize that the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(emergence of a convivial and pluralist mode of production will follow the limitation of industrial)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(institutions.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(In the past, convivial life for some inevitably demanded the servitude of others. Labor efficiency was)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(low before the steel ax, the pump, the bicycle, and the nylon fishing line. Between the High Middle)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Ages and the Enlightenment, the alchemic dream misled many otherwise authentic Western)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(humanists. The illusion prevailed that the machine was a laboratory-made homunculus, and that it)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(could do our labor instead of slaves. It is now time to correct this mistake and shake off the illusion)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(that men are born to be slaveholders and that the only thing wrong in the past was that not all men)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(could be equally so. By reducing our expectations of machines, however, we must guard against)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(falling into the equally damaging rejection of all machines as if they were works of the devil.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(A convivial society should be designed to allow all its members the most autonomous action by)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(means of tools least controlled by others. People feel joy, as opposed to mere pleasure, to the extent)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(that their activities are creative; while the growth of tools beyond a certain point increases)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(regimentation, dependence, exploitation, and impotence. I use the term "tool" broadly enough to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(include not only simple hardware such as drills, pots, syringes, brooms, building elements, or motors,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(and not just large machines like cars or power stations; I also include among tools productive)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(institutions such as factories that produce tangible commodities like corn flakes or electric current,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(and productive systems for intangible commodities such as those which produce "education,")Tj
/F8 11 Tf 143.742 682 Td(Ivan Illich - Tools For Conviviality)Tj
295.026 -709 Td(17)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc("health," "knowledge," or "decisions." I use this term because it allows me to subsume into one)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(category all rationally designed devices, be they artifacts or rules, codes or operators, and to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(distinguish all these planned and engineered instrumentalities from other things such as basic food or)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(implements, which in a given culture are not deemed to be subject to rationalization. School curricula)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(or marriage laws are no less purposely shaped social devices than road networks.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Tools are intrinsic to social relationships. An individual relates himself in action to his society through)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the use of tools that he actively masters, or by which he is passively acted upon. To the degree that he)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(masters his tools, he can invest the world with his meaning; to the degree that he is mastered by his)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(tools, the shape of the tool determines his own self-image. Convivial tools are those which give each)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(person who uses them the greatest opportunity to enrich the environment with the fruits of his or her)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(vision. Industrial tools deny this possibility to those who use them and they allow their designers to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(determine the meaning and expectations of others. Most tools today cannot be used in a convivial)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(fashion.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Hand tools are those which adapt man's metabolic energy to a specific task. They can be)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(multipurpose, like some primitive hammers or good modern pocket knives, or again they can be)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(highly specific in design such as spindles, looms, or pedal-driven sewing machines, and dentists')Tj
0 -13.2 Td(drills. They can also be complex such as a transportation system built to get the most in mobility out)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of human energy-for instance, a bicycle system composed of a series of man-powered vehicles, such)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(as pushcarts and three-wheel rickshas, with a corresponding road system equipped with repair)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(stations and perhaps even covered roadways. Hand tools are mere transducers of the energy generated)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(by man's extremities and fed by the intake of air and of nourishment.)Tj
/F6 11 Tf 0 -26.4 Td(Power tools)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( are moved, at least partially, by energy converted outside the human body. Some of them)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(act as amplifiers of human energy: the oxen pull the plow, but man works with the oxen-the result is)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(obtained by pooling the powers of beast and man. Power saws and motor pulleys are used in the same)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(fashion. On the other hand, the energy used to steer a jet plane has ceased to be a significant fraction)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of its power output. The pilot is reduced to a mere operator guided by data which a computer digests)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(for him. The machine needs him for lack of a better computer; or he is in the cockpit because the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(social control of unions over airplanes imposes his presence.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Tools foster conviviality to the extent to which they can be easily used, by anybody, as often or as)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(seldom as desired, for the accomplishment of a purpose chosen by the user. The use of such tools by)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(one person does not restrain another from using them equally. They do not require previous)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(certification of the user. Their existence does not impose any obligation to use them. They allow the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(user to express his meaning in action.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Some institutions are structurally convivial tools. The telephone is an example. Anybody can dial the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(person of his choice if he can afford a coin. If untiring computers keep the lines occupied and thereby)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(restrict the number of personal conversations, this is a misuse by the company of a license given so)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(that persons can speak. The telephone lets anybody say what he wants to the person of his choice; he)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(can conduct business, express love, or pick a quarrel. It is impossible for bureaucrats to define what)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(people say to each other on the phone, even though they can interfere with-or protect-the privacy of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(their exchange.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Most hand tools lend themselves to convivial use unless they are artificially restricted through some)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(institutional arrangements. They can be restricted by becoming the monopoly of one profession, as)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(happens with dentist drills through the requirement of a license and with libraries or laboratories by)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(placing them within schools. Also, tools can be purposely limited when simple pliers and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(screwdrivers are insufficient to repair modern cars. This institutional monopoly or manipulation)Tj
/F8 11 Tf 143.742 682 Td(Ivan Illich - Tools For Conviviality)Tj
295.026 -709 Td(18)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(usually constitutes an abuse and changes the nature of the tool as little as the nature of the knife is)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(changed by its abuse for murder.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(In principle the distinction between convivial and manipulatory tools is independent of the level of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(technology of the tool. What has been said of the telephone could be repeated point by point for the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(mails or for a typical Mexican market. Each is an institutional arrangement that maximizes liberty,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(even though in a broader context it can be abused for purposes of manipulation and control. The)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(telephone is the result of advanced engineering; the mails require in principle little technology and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(considerable organization and scheduling; the Mexican market runs with minimum planning along)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(customary patterns.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Any institution that moves toward its second watershed tends to become highly manipulative. For)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(instance, it costs more to make teaching possible than to teach. The cost of roles exceeds the cost of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(production. Increasingly, components intended for the accomplishment of institutional purposes are)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(redesigned so that they cannot be used independently. People without cars have no access to planes\))Tj
0 -13.2 Td(and people without plane tickets have no access to convention hotels. Alternate tools which are fit to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(accomplish the same purposes with fewer claims are pushed off the market. For instance, civilized)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(correspondence becomes a lost art. During the last several years this barring of alternatives has)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(usually coincided with the increased power of the tool and the development of more complex tool)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(systems.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(It is possible that not every means of desirable production in a postindustrial society would fit the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(criteria of conviviality. It is probable that even in an overwhelmingly convivial world some)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(communities would choose greater affluence at the cost of some restrictions on creativity. It is almost)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(certain that in a period of transition from the present to the future mode of production in certain)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(countries electricity would not commonly be produced in the backyard. It is also true that trains must)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(run on tracks and stop on schedule at a limited number of points. Oceangoing vessels are built for one)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(purpose; if they were sailing clippers, they might be even more specialized for one route than are)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(present tankers. Telephone systems are highly determined for the transmission of messages of a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(certain band width and must be centrally administered even if they are limited to the service of only)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(one area. It is a mistake to believe that all large tools and all centralized production would have to be)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(excluded from a convivial society. It would equally be a mistake to demand that for the sake of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(conviviality the distribution of industrial goods and services be reduced to the minimum consistent)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(with survival in order to protect the maximum equal right to self-determined participation. Different)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(balances between distributive justice and participatory justice can prevail in societies equally striving)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(for post-industrial conviviality, depending on the history, political ideals, and physical resources of a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(community.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(What is fundamental to a convivial society is not the total absence of manipulative institutions and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(addictive goods and services, but the balance between those tools which create the specific demands)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(they are specialized to satisfy and those complementary, enabling tools which foster self-realization.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(The first set of tools produces according to abstract plans for men in general; the other set enhances)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the ability of people to pursue their own goals in their unique way.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The criteria by which anticonvivial or manipulative tools are recognized cannot be used to exclude)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(every tool that meets them. These criteria, however, can be applied as guidelines for structuring the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(totality of tools by which a society desires to define the style and level of its conviviality. A convivial)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(society does not exclude all schools. It does exclude a school system which has been perverted into a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(compulsory tool, denying privileges to the dropout. A convivial society does not exclude some)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(high-speed intercity transport, as long as its layout does not in fact impose equally high speeds on all)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(other routes. Not even television must be ruled out-although it permits very few programmers and)Tj
/F8 11 Tf 143.742 682 Td(Ivan Illich - Tools For Conviviality)Tj
295.026 -709 Td(19)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(speakers to define what their viewers may see-as long as the over-all structure of society does not)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(favor the degradation of everyone into a compulsory voyeur. The criteria of conviviality are to be)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(considered as guidelines to the continuous process by which a society's members defend their liberty,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(and not as a set of prescriptions which can be mechanically applied.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(At present the reverse guideline prevails, even in societies where the producer is told that he is in the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(saddle. The socialist planner competes with the free-market advocate in claiming that a society run)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(on his principles is more productive. In 1931 Stalin translated "control over the means of production")Tj
0 -13.2 Td(to mean the increase of productivity by new methods used to control the producer. In the midst of the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(U.S. Depression he launched Russia on an industrial race. Since then a socialist policy has been)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(considered one which serves the industrially organized productivity of a socialist country. Stalin's)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(reinterpretation of Marxism has since then served as a form of blackmail against socialists and the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(left. It remains to be seen if after Mao's death China will also trade productive conviviality for)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(institutional productivity. The Stalinist interpretation of socialism has made it possible for socialists)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(and capitalists alike to agree on how to measure the level of development a society has achieved.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Societies in which most people depend for most of their goods and services on the personal whim,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(kindness, or skill of another are called "underdeveloped," while those in which living has been)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(transformed into a process of ordering from an all-encompassing store catalogue are called)Tj
0 -13.2 Td("advanced." Stalinism makes it possible to interpret as revolutionary whatever increases the amount)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of schooling, expands the road systems, or increases the productivity of extraction and manufacture.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(To be revolutionary has come to mean either to champion the nation that lags in production and to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(make its members keenly aware of the lag, or to inflame the frantic and frustrated attempts of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(underconsuming minorities in rich countries to catch up.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Every aspect of industrial societies has become part of a larval system for escalating production and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(increasing the demand necessary to justify the total social cost. For this reason, criticism of bad)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(management, official dishonesty, insufficient research, or technological lag distracts public attention)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(from the one issue that counts: careful analysis of the basic structure of tools as means. It is equally)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(distracting to suggest that the present frustration is primarily due to the private ownership of the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(means of production, and that the public ownership of these same factories under the tutelage of a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(planning board could protect the interest of the majority and lead society to an equally shared)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(abundance. As long as Ford Motor Company can be condemned simply because it makes Ford rich,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the illusion is bolstered that the same factory could make the public rich. As long as people believe)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(that the public can profit from cars, they will not condemn Ford for making cars. The issue at hand is)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(not the juridical ownership of tools, but rather the discovery of the characteristic of some tools which)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(make it impossible for anybody to "own" them. The concept of ownership cannot be applied to a tool)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(that cannot be controlled.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The issue at hand, therefore, is what tools can be controlled in the public interest. Only secondarily)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(does the question arise whether private control of a potentially useful tool is in the public interest.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Certain tools are destructive no matter who owns them, whether it be the Mafia, stockholders, a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(foreign company, the state, or even a workers' commune. Networks of multilane highways, long.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(range, wide-band-width transmitters, strip mines, or compulsory school systems are such tools.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Destructive tools must inevitably increase regimentation, dependence, exploitation, or impotence, and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(rob not only the rich but also the poor of conviviality, which is the primary treasure in many so-called)Tj
0 -13.2 Td("underdeveloped" areas.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(It has become difficult for contemporary man to imagine development and modernization in terms of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(lower rather than higher energy use. High technology has been mistakenly identified with powerful)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(intervention in physical, psychological, and social processes. The illusion that a high culture is one)Tj
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295.026 -709 Td(20)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(that uses the highest possible quantities of energy must be overcome if we are to get tools into focus.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(In classical societies power sources were very equally distributed. Each man was born with the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(potential to use most of the power he would need in a lifetime if his organism was properly)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(maintained. Control over larger amounts of physical energy was the result of psychic manipulation or)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of political domination.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Men did not need power tools to build the Mexican pyramids of Teotihucan or the Philippine rice)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(terraces of Ibagua. Their muscles provided the force to raise St. Peter's and to dig the channels of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Angkor Vat. Runners carried the messages between Caesar's generals and between village chiefs and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Inca planners. Hands and feet moved the spindle and the loom, the pottery wheel and the saw. Human)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(metabolism provided the energy that powered classical agriculture, manufacture, and war. Individual)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(skills were the controls that shaped animal energy into socially defined work. The energy that rulers)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(could control was the sum of the performance their subjects voluntarily or involuntarily conceded.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(I do not claim that human metabolism provided all useful power, but I do claim that in most cultures it)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(was the main source of power. Men knew how to harness some of the forces of the environment. They)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(steered barges down the Nile: they gentled beasts to draw the plow; they caught the wind in their)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(sails: they became experts in the construction of simple machines which combined the power of men)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(and of rain and of gravity. They also tamed fire in the forge and the kitchen, but the total output of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(these sources remained secondary. Even Mongols who lived on their mounts provided more energy)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(with their muscles than with their horsepower. All the energy tapped from the environment to build)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Athens and Florence did not contribute as much controlled power to these classical societies as did)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(their men. Only when man lit fires to turn cities into ruins or jungles into swiddens did he)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(release--but certainly not control--energies that overwhelmed the power of the people who used)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(them.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The amount of physical power available to old societies can be estimated. It can be expressed in)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(multiples of the average man's working time and metabolic energy. lie can burn 2,500 calories a day,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(four-fifths of them just to stay alive. They go into making his heart beat and his brain pulse. The)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(remainder can be externalized, but this does not mean that all of it can be transformed into work. A)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(large portion of the lifetime capacity of a man to act on his physical and social environment is burnt)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(running around while he grows up. More is spent for chores that lie beyond his personal choice-but)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(also beyond other men's reach. He consumes energy in getting tip, in preparing food, in seeking)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(protection from the cold, or in avoiding the slavedriver's whip. If man is deprived of the use of this)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(power, hue becomes useless for work. Society can give shape to these personal activities, but it cannot)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(appropriate the energy used on them for other tasks. Custom, language, and law can determine the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(form of the slave's pottery, but the master cannot take the last pots or the roof away from his slaves,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(not if he wants them to go on slaving for him. A small energy parcel from each man was the major)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(source of physical power with which temples were built, mountains were moved, cloth was woven,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(wars were waged, and kings were carried around or amused.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Power was limited. It was proportional to the population. Its major source was the muscles of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(individual men. Its efficient use depended on the stage of development which hand tools had reached)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(and the distribution of necessary tools throughout the population. Tools all matched the impedance of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(manpower to the task. Except by redirecting the forces of gravity and wind they did not and could not)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(act as amplifiers of this power. To control more power than others in his society, a man had to lord it)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(over his fellows. If a ruler could draw power from sources other than men, his control over this power)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(still depended on his control over men. Each pair of oxen required a man to lead them. Even the forge)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(needed a boy to blow into the fire. Political control co incided with the control over physical power,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(and the control of power depended entirely on authority.)Tj
/F8 11 Tf 143.742 668.8 Td(Ivan Illich - Tools For Conviviality)Tj
295.026 -709 Td(21)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(Equal power and equal direct control of power were both features of preindustrial societies, but this)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(did not guarantee an equal autonomy in the exercise of this control. On a very primi tive level the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(physical predominance of one person made him into the lord of others. A slight advantage in)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(organization or weaponry made one people the master of another. The appropria tion of resources and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(tools created the basis of class societies and fostered the rituals and myths that shaped men to fit into)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the class to which they were assigned.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(In a preindustrial society political control could extend only over the excess power that people could)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(produce. As soon as a population became efficient enough to produce more power than was required)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(to maintain it, people could be deprived of control over this energy. They could be compelled to cede)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(their power to the decisions of others. They could be either taxed or enslaved. Part of what they)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(produced on their own could be taken from them, or they could be put to work for the king or the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(village. Ideology, economic structure, and life style tended to favor this concentration of excess)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(energy under the control of a few.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The degree to which this concentration of control polarized social benefits varied from one culture to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(another. At best it improved the range within which most members of society could employ their)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(remaining energies. High peasant cultures offer good examples. While all shared in the tasks of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(defending their land from enemies or floods, each was also better dressed, housed, and fed. At worst,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the concentration of decisions over power led to the establishment of empires which were expanded)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(by merce naries and fed from plantations worked by slaves.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The total energy available to socieq increased rapidly toward the end of the Iron Age, that is, between)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the time of Agrippa and the time of Watt. Most of the radical technical mutations that came into)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(existence before the scientific discoveries in the field of electricity in fact came about early in the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Middle Ages. Because they used windpower far more effectively than any previous in vention,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(three-masted sailing ships made world-wide transporta tion possible. Speedy transportation with)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(regular deliveries was made possible by the building of canals in Europe, a millen nium after the same)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(discovery was implemented in Southeast Asia. A vastly increased application of nonhuman energy to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(in dustries like brewing, dyeing, pottery-making, brick-making, sugar-refining, salt manufacture,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(and transportation went parallel with the construction of vastly improved water wheels and wind)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(mills.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(From the High Middle Ages to the late Renaissance, new)Tj
/F5 11 Tf ( social)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( tools developed that ensured the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(protection of the worker's self image and dignity, although he was now sometimes dwarfed by the size)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of machines. The guild system did indeed give the worker a new claim to the monopoly over tools)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(specific to his trade. But the mill had not yet grown out of proportion to the miller. His monopoly)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(over grain-processing protected the guildsman, pro vided him with extra holidays, and still)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(maximized the services that he could render to his town. Guilds were neither unions nor professional)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(associations.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Lewis Mumford in his)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( The Myth of the Machine: The Penta gon of Power)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( points out that one)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(particular enterprise, namely mining,)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(set the pattern for later modes of mechanizadon by its callous disregard for human factors, by its)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(indifference to the pollution and destruction of the neighboring environment, by its concentration)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(upon the physico chemical process for obtaining the desired metal or fuel, and abo~re all by its)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(topographic and mental isolation from the organic world of the farmer and the craftsman, and tbe)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(spiritual world of the Church, the University and the Ciq. In its destruction of the environment and its)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(indifference to the risks to human life, mining closely resembles warfare--through likewise it often,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(through its confrontation of danger and death, brings into existence a tough, self-respecting)Tj
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295.026 -709 Td(22)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(personality . . . the soldier at his best. But the destructive animus of mining and its punishing routine)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of work, along with its environmental poverty and disorder were passed on to the new industries that)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(used its products. These negative social results offset the mechanical gains.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(This new attitude toward gainful activity is well reflected in the introduction of a new term to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(designate it.)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( Tripaliare)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( meant to torture on the)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( trepalium,)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( which was first mentioned in the sixth)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(century as an instrument of impalement made out of three wooden sticks. By the twelfth century the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(word in both French and Spanish expressed a painful experience to which man is subjected; only in)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the sixteenth century did it become possible to use the verb)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( trabajar)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( interchangeably with)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( laborar)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( and)Tj
/F6 11 Tf 0 -13.2 Td(sudar)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( on the job. Equally significant is what happened in the English language. Things began to)Tj
/F6 11 Tf 0 -13.2 Td(work--first)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( medicines \(1600\) and then physical tools \(1650\), even though these were not yet tools)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(driven by any outside power. The alchemist's dream of making a homunculus in the test tube slowly)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(took the shape of creating robots to)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( work)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( for man, and to educate men to)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( work)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( alongside them. The)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(ideology of an industrial organization of tools and a capitalist organization of the economy preceded)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(by many centuries what is usually called the Industrial Revolution. On Baconian premises Europeans)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(began, according to Mumford, to save time, shrink space, augment power, multiply goods,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(over-throw organic norms and displace real organisms with mechanisms that stimulated them or)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(vastly magnified some single function they performed. All these imperatives, which have become the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(groundwork of science as technology in our present society, seem axiomatic and absolute only)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(because they remain unexamined. The same change of mind appears also in a transfer from ritual)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(regularity to mechanical regularity with an emphasis on time-keeping, space-measuring,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(account-keeping, thus translating concrete objects and complex events into abstract quantities.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(According to Mumford, it was this capitalistic devotion to repetitive order that helped undermine the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(unmeasurable personal balance between the workman and his tools.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(New power meant a new relation to time. The lending of money against interest was considered)Tj
0 -13.2 Td("against nature" by the Church: money naturally was a means of exchange to buy necessities, not a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(capital that could)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( work)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( or bear fruits. During the seventeenth century even the Church abandoned this)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(view-though reluctantly--to accept the fact that Christians had become capitalist merchants. Time)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(became like money: I now can)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( have)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( a few hours before lunch; how shall I)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( spend)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( time? . . I am)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( short of)Tj
/F4 11 Tf 0 -13.2 Td(time so I can't)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( afford)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( to)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( spend)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( that much time on a committee; it's not)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( worth)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( the time . . . It world be a)Tj
/F6 11 Tf 0 -13.2 Td(waste)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( of time; I'd rather)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( save)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( an hour.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Scientists began to consider man as a power source. They sought to measure the maximum daily)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(exertion that might be expected from a man and compare both his maintenance and his power to those)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of a horse. Man was reinvented as a source of mechanical power. Prisoners condemned to the galleys)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(were not much use most of the time, since galleys were most of the time in port. Prisoners condemned)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(to the treadmills produced rotary power to which any of the new machines could be hooked. Up to the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(early nineteenth century men in English prisons actually labored on the treadmills to make machines)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(work.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The new attitude of man to his tools during the Industrial Revolution, which began as capitalism did)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(in the fifteenth century, finally called for the invention of new sources of power. The steam engine)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(was a product of the Industrial Revolution rather than the cause of it. Power plants soon became)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(mobile, and with the railroad the Iron Age and the Industrial Revolution came to an end. Industrial)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(ways became the status quo.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Immense new sources of power were tapped during the twentieth century, and much of this power)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(became self-governing. Man has now been almost replaced by machines and reduced to being their)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(operator. Fewer men are needed as gang workers in the fields: slavery has become uneconomical. But)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(also fewer men are needed on the assembly line, as engineers have designed machines to perform the)Tj
/F8 11 Tf 143.742 682 Td(Ivan Illich - Tools For Conviviality)Tj
295.026 -709 Td(23)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(tasks that mass production and industrialization had created in the centuries before the steam engine.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(More power has become available, so more power is used, The human slaveowner is replaced by the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(operant conditioning of men in the mega-machine.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(We have all grown up as children of our time, and therefore it is extremely difficult to envisage a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(postindustrial yet human type of "work." To reduce industrial tools seems equivalent to a return to the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(tortured labor of the mine and the factory, or to the labor of the U.S. farm hand who has to compete)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(with his mechanical neighbor. The worker who had to dip a heavy tire into a solution of hot sulfur)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(each time the machine asked for it was literally hooked onto his apparatus. Agricultural labor also)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(ceased to be what it was for a slave or a farmer. For the slave it was)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( labor)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( at the service and behest of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(a master; for the peasant it was his own)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( work)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( which be could organize and shape in accordance with)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the demands of growing plants, hungry animals, and unpredictable weather. The modern farmhand in)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the United States today who is deprived of power tools is under a double pressure quite different from)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(that of the classical slave: he must measure up to performance standards set by farm hands elsewhere)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(who use machines, and he is constantly aware that he is underprivileged, exploited, and abused)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(because in an age of the megamachine he feels that he is used like a component. The prospect that)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(moving toward a convivial society might imply a society with low power tools would seem to him)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(like a return to the exploitation of manpower by inefficient industrial machines in the early periods of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(steam.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(I have described three types of institutional arrangements within which tools can be used. Certain)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(tools can be used effectively within only one of these arrangements. There are tools which can be)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(used normally for fully satisfying, imaginative, and independent)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( work;)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( others tend to be used)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(primarily in activities best labeled as)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( labor;)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( and, finally, certain machines can only be)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( operated.)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( The)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(same can be said about physical artifacts and about the set of rules that define formal institutional)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(arrangements. Cars are machines that call for highways, and highways pretend to be public utilities)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(while in fact they are discriminatory devices. Compulsory schools constitute a huge bureaucratic)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(system; no matter how convivially a teacher tries to conduct his class, his pupils learn through him to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(which class they belong.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Cars)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( operate)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( on highways as teachers operate in schools. Only in a very limited sense can what the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(truck driver and the teacher do be called)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( labor.)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( Only exceptionally will a teacher feel that his)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(operations within the school system do not directly interfere with his)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( work.)Tj
/F4 11 Tf 0 -26.4 Td(The market characteristics of these three types of human activity help to clarify the distinction among)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(them. Labor can be purchased or sold in the marketplace. Not work as an activity, but only the result)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of convivial work can be marketed. Finally, the right to operate machines and to obtain the scarce)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(privileges that go with employment must be earned through the previous consumption of certified)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(treatments, which take the form of a curriculum of schooling and testing along with successive jobs.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Tools for a convivial and yet efficient society could not have been designed at an earlier stage of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(history. We now can design the machinery for eliminating slavery without enslaving man to the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(machine. Science and technology are not bound to the peculiar notion, seemingly characteristic of the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(last 150 years of their application to production, that new knowledge of nature's laws has to be locked)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(into increasingly more specialized and highly capitalized preparation of men to use them. The)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(sciences, which specialized out of philosophy, have become the rationale for an increasing division of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(operations. The division of labor has finally led to the)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( labor-saving)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( division of tools. New)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(technology is now used to amplify supply funnels for commodities. Public utilities are turned from)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(facilities for persons into arenas for the owners of expensive tools. The use of science and technology)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(constantly supports the industrial mode of production, and thereby crowds off the scene all tool shops)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(for independent enterprise. But this is not the necessary result of new scientific discoveries or of their)Tj
/F8 11 Tf 143.742 682 Td(Ivan Illich - Tools For Conviviality)Tj
295.026 -709 Td(24)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(useful application. It is rather the result of a total prejudice in favor of the future expansion of an)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(industrial mode of production. Research teams are organized to remedy minor inefficiencies that hold)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(up the further growth of a specific production process. These planned discoveries are then heralded as)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(costly breakthroughs in the interest of further public service. Research is now mostly oriented toward)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(industrial development.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(This unqualified identification of scientific advance with the replacement of human initiative by)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(programmed tools springs from an ideological prejudice and is not the result of scientific analysis.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Science could be applied for precisely the opposite purpose. Advanced or "high" technology could)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(become identified with labor-sparing, work-intensive decentralized productivity. Natural and social)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(science can be used for the creation of tools, utilities, and rules available to everyone, permitting)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(individuals and transient associations to constantly recreate their mutual relationships and their)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(environment with unenvisaged freedom and self-expression.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(New understanding of nature can now be applied to our tools either for the purpose of propelling us)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(into a hyperindustrial age of electronic cybernetics or to help us develop a wide range of truly modern)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(and yet convivial tools. Limited resources can be used to provide millions of viewers with the color)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(image of one performer or to provide many people with free access to the records of their choice. In)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the first case, technology will be used for the further promotion of the specialized worker, be lie a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(plumber, surgeon, or TV performer. More and more bureaucrats will study the market, consult their)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(balance sheets, and decide for more people on more occasions about the range of products among)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(which they may choose. There will be a further increase of useful things for useless people. But)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(science can also be used to simplify tools and to enable the layman to shape his immediate)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(environment to his taste. The time has come to take the syringe out of the hand of the doctor, as the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(pen was taken out of the band of the scribe during the Reformation in Europe.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Most curable sickness can now be diagnosed and treated by laymen. People find it so difficult to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(accept this statement because the complexity of medical ritual has hidden from them the simplicity of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(its basic procedures. It took the example of the barefoot doctor in China to show how modern practice)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(by simple workers in their spare time could, in three years, catapult health care in China to levels)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(unparalleled elsewhere. In most other countries health care by laymen is considered a crime. A)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(seventeen-year-old friend of mine was recently tried for having treated some 130 of her high-school)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(colleagues for VD. She was acquitted on a technicality by the judge when expert counsel compared)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(her performance with that of the U.S. Health Service. Nowhere in the U.S.A. can her achievement be)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(considered "standard," because she succeeded in making retests on all her patients six weeks after)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(their first treatment. Progress)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( should)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( mean growing competence in self-care rather than growing)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(dependence.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The possibilities of lay therapy also run up against our commitment to "better" health, and have)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(blinded us to the distinction between curable and incurable sickness. This is a crucial distinction)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(because as soon as a doctor treats incurable sickness, he perverts his craft from a means to an end. He)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(becomes a charlatan set on providing scientific consolation in a ceremony in which the doctor takes)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(on the patient's struggle against death. The patient becomes the object of his ministrations instead of a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(sick subject who can be helped in the process of healing or dying. Medicine ceases to be a legitimate)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(profession when it cannot provide each man or his next of kin with the tool to make this one crucial)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(differential diagnosis for himself.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(New opportunities for the progressive expansion of lay therapy and the parallel progressive reduction)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of professional medicine are rejected because life in an industrial society has made us place such)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(exaggerated value on standard products, uniformity, and certified quality. Industrialized expectations)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(have blurred the distinction between personal vocation and standard profession. Of course, any)Tj
/F8 11 Tf 143.742 682 Td(Ivan Illich - Tools For Conviviality)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(layman can grow up to become a general healer, but this \(hoes not mean that every layman must be)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(taught how to heal. It simply means that in a society in which people can and must take care of their)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(neighbors and do so on their own, some people will excel at using the best available tools. In a society)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(in which people can once again be born in their homes and die in their homes and in which there is a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(place for cripples and idiots in the street, and where a distinction is made between plumbing and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(healing, quite a few people would grow up capable of assisting others to heal, to suffer, or to die.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Just as with proper social arrangements most people would grow up as readers without having to be)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(schooled and without having to recreate the pre-Gutenberg profession of the scribe, so a sufficient)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(number would grow up competent with medical tools. This would make healing so plentiful that it)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(would be difficult to turn this competence into a monopoly or to sell it as a commodity.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Deprofessionalization means a renewed distinction between the freedom of vocation and the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(occasional boost sick people derive from the quasi-religious authority of the certified doctor.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Of course the deprofessionalization of most ordinary medicine could sometimes substitute a quack for)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(today's impostor, but the threat of quackery becomes less convincing as professionally caused damage)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(grows. There just is no substitute for the self-correcting judgment of the layman in socializing the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(tools invented or use\(l by the professional. Lifelong familiarity with the specific dangers of a specific)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(remedy is the best preparation for accepting or rejecting it in time of crisis.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Take another tool--transportation--as an example. Under President Cardenas in the early thirties,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Mexico developed a modern system of transportation. Within a few years about 80 percent of the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(population had gained access to the advantages of the automobile. Most important, villages had been)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(connected by dirt roads or tracks. Heavy, simple, and tough trucks traveled over them every now and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(then, moving at speeds far below twenty miles per hour. People were crowded together on rows of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(wooden benches nailed to the floor to make place for merchandise loaded in the back and on the roof.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Over short distances the vehicle could not compete with people, who had been used to walking and to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(carrying their merchandise, but long-distance travel had become possible for all. instead of a man)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(driving his pig to market, man and pig could go together in a truck. Any Mexican could now reach)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(any point in his country in a few days.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Since 1945 the money spent on roads has increased every year. It has been used to build highways)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(between a few major centers. Fragile cars now move at high speeds over smooth roads. Large,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(specialized trucks connect factories. The old, all-purpose tramp truck has been pushed back into the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(mountains or swamps. In most areas either the peasant must take a bus to go to the market to buy)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(industrially packaged commodities, or he sells his pig to the trucker in the employ of the meat)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(merchant. He can no longer go to town with his pig. He pays taxes for the roads which serve the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(owners of various specialized monopolies and does so under the illusion that the benefits will)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(ultimately spread to him.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(In exchange for an occasional ride on an upholstered seat in an air-conditioned bus, the common man)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(has lost much of the mobility the old system gave him, without gaining any new freedom. Research)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(done in two typical large states of Mexico-one dominated by deserts, the other by mountains and lush)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(growth--confirms this conclusion. Less than one percent of the population in either state traveled a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(distance of over fifteen miles in any one hour during 1970)Tj
/F5 11 Tf (.)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( More appropriate pushcarts and bicycles,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(both motorized when needed, would have presented a technologically much more efficient solution)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(for 99 percent of the population than the vaunted highway development. Such pushcarts could have)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(been built and maintained by people trained on the job, and operated on roadbeds built to Inca)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(standards, yet covered to diminish drag. The usual rationale given for the investment in standard roads)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(and cars is that it is a condition for development and that without it a region cannot be integrated into)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the world market. Both claims are true, but can be considered as desirable only if monetary)Tj
/F8 11 Tf 143.742 682 Td(Ivan Illich - Tools For Conviviality)Tj
295.026 -709 Td(26)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(integration is the goal of development.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(During the last few years tire promoters of development have come to admit that cars, as operated)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(now, are inefficient. This inefficiency is blamed on the fact that modern vehicles are designed for)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(private ownership, not for the public good. In fact, modern personnel transport is inefficient not)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(because an individual capsule rather than a cabin is the model for the largest number of vehicles, or)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(because these vehicles are now owned by their drivers. It is inefficient because of the obsessive)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(identification of higher speed with better transport. Just as the demand for better health at all costs is a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(form of mental sickness, so is the pretense of higher speed.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The railroads reflected the class societies they served simply by putting different fares on the same)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(speed. But when a society commits itself to higher speeds, the speedometer becomes an indicator of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(social class. Any peasant could accompany Lazaro Cardenas on horseback. Today only his personal)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(staff can accompany a modern governor in his private helicopter. In capitalist countries)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( how)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( often you)Tj
/F6 11 Tf 0 -13.2 Td(can)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( cover great distances is determined by what your)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( can)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( pay. In socialist countries your velocity)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(depends on the social importance the bureaucracy attaches to you. In both cases the particular speed at)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(which you travel puts you into your class and company. Speed is one of the means by which an)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(efficiency-oriented society is stratified.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Fostered addiction to speed is also a means of social control. Transportation in its various forms now)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(swallows 23 percent of the U.S. gross expenditures. The United States may be rich enough to allocate)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(one-fourth of its energy resources and human time to time enterprise of getting somewhere. Under)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Khufu, Egyptians might have spent that much during a few years to build the Great Pyramid and to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(get their ruler to the underworld. Unfortunately, however, transportation exacts an ever higher)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(percentage of the cash spent in a given year within many a Latin-American municipality. The road)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(degrades the subsistence farmer and artisan, integrates the village into time money economy, and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(swallows much of the available cash. Pt is true that modern transportation does incorporate a region)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(into the world market. It also trains the inhabitants for the consumption of foreign goods and the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(acceptance of foreign values. For example, throughout history Thailand was known for its klongs.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(These canals crisscrossed the country; people, rice, and tax collectors all moved easily along them.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Some villages were cut off during the dry season, but their seasonal rhythm of life turned this periodic)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(isolation into an occasion for meditation and festivities. A society that can afford long holidays and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(fill them with activities is certainly not poor. During time Past half-decade major klongs were filled)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(in to build roads. Since bus drivers are paid by the number of miles they can cover in a day, and since)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(cars are still few, the Thais for a short while will be able to circulate in their country at world-record)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(bus speeds. They will pay with the destruction of waterways that took millennia to build. The)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(economists argue that busses and trucks pump more money per year through the economy. They do,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(but at the cost of depriving most Thais of the independence which their sleek rice boats once granted)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(each family. Of course, car owners could never have competed with rice boats unless time World)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Bank had financed roads for them and time Thai government had made new laws that permitted them)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(to profane the klongs.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The building trades are another example of an industry that modern nation-states impose on their)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(societies, thereby modernizing the poverty of their citizens. The legal protection and financial support)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(granted the industry reduces and cancels opportunities for the otherwise much more efficient)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(self-builder. Quite recently Mexico launched a major program with the aim of providing all workers)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(with proper housing. As a first step, new standards were set for the construction of dwelling units.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(These standards were intended to protect the little man who purchases a house from exploitation by)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the industry producing it. Paradoxically, these same standards deprived many more people of the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(traditional opportunity to house themselves. The code specifies minimum requirements that a man)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(who builds his own house in his spare time cannot meet. Besides that, the real rent for industrially)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(built quarters is more than the total income of 80 percent of the people. "Better housing," then, can be)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(occupied only by those who are well-off or by those on whom the law bestows direct rent subsidies.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Once dwellings that fall below industrial standards are defined as improper, public funds are denied to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the overwhelming majority of people who cannot buy housing but could "house" themselves. The tax)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(funds meant to improve the living quarters of the poor are monopolized for the building of new towns)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(next to the provincial and regional capitals where government employees, unionized workers, and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(people with good connections can live. These are all people who are employed in the modern sector)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of the economy, that is, people who)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( hold)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( jobs. They can be easily distinguished from other Mexicans)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(because they have learned to speak about their)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( trabajo)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( as a noun, while the unemployed or the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(occasionally employed or those who live near the subsistence level do not use the noun form when)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(they go to work.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(These people, who)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( have)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( work, not only get subsidies for the building of their homes; the entire)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(public-service sector is rearranged and developed to serve them. In Mexico City it has been estimated)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(that 10 percent of the people use 50 percent of the household water, and on tire high plain water is)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(very scarce indeed. The building code has standards far below those of rich countries, but by)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(prescribing certain ways in which houses must be built, it creates a rising scarcity of housing. The)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(pretense of a society to provide ever better housing is the same kind of abberation we have met in the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(pretense of doctors to provide better health and of engineers to provide higher speeds. The setting of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(abstract impossible goals turns the means by which these are t9 be achieved into ends.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(What happened in Mexico happened all over Latin America during the decade of the Alliance for)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Progress, including Cuba under Castro. It also happened in Massachusetts. In 1945, 32 percent of all)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(one-family housing units in Massachusetts were still self-built: either built by their owners from)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(foundation to roof or constructed under the full responsibility of the owner. By 1970 the proportion)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(had gone down to 11 percent. Meanwhile,)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( housing)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( had been discovered as a major)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( problem.)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( The)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(technological capability to produce tools and materials that favor self-building had increased in the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(intervening decades, but social arrangements--like unions, codes, mortgage rules, and markets-had)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(turned against this choice.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Most people do not feel at home unless a significant proportion of the value of their houses is the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(result of the input of their own labor. Convivial policies would define what people who want to house)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(themselves cannot get, and thereby make sure that all can get access to some minimum of physical)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(space, to water, some basic building elements, some convivial tools ranging from power drills to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(mechanized pushcarts, and, probably, to some limited credit. Such an inversion of the present policy)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(could give a post-industrial society modern homes almost as desirable for its members as those which)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(were standard for the old Mayas and are still the rule in Yucatan.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Our present tools are engineered to deliver professional energies. Such energies come in quanta. Less)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(than a quantum cannot be delivered. Less than four years of schooling is worse than none. It only)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(defines the former pupil as a dropout. This is equally true in medicine, transportation, and housing, as)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(in agriculture and in the administration of justice. Mechanical transportation is worthwhile only at)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(certain speeds. Conflict resolution is effective only when the issue is of sufficient weight to justify the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(costs of court action. The planting of new grains is productive only if the acreage and capital of the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(farmer are beyond a certain size. Powerful tools created to achieve abstractly conceived social goals)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(inevitably deliver their output in quanta that are beyond the reach of a majority. What is more, these)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(tools are integrated. Access to key positions in government or industry is reserved to those who are)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(certified consumers of high quanta of schooling. They are the individuals chosen to run the plantation)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of mutant rubber trees, and they need a car to rush from meeting to meeting. Productivity demands the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(output of packaged quanta of institutionally defined values, and productive management demands the)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(access of an individual to all these packages at once.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Professional goal-setting produces goods for an environment produced by other professions. Life that)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(depends on high speed and apartment houses makes hospitals inevitable. By definition all these are)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(scarce, and get even scarcer as they approach the standards set more recently by an ever-evolving)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(profession; thereby each unit or quantum appearing on the market frustrates more people than it)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(satisfies.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(A just society would be one in which liberty for one person is constrained only by the demands)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(created by equal liberty for another. Such a society requires as a precondition an agreement excluding)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(tools that by their very nature prevent such liberty. This is true for tools that are fundamentally purely)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(social arrangements, such as the school system, as well as for tools that are physical machines. In a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(convivial society compulsory and open-ended schooling would have to be excluded for the sake of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(justice. Age-specific, compulsory competition on an unending ladder for lifelong privileges cannot)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(increase equality but must favor those who start earlier, or who are healthier, or who are better)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(equipped outside the classroom. Inevitably, it organizes society into many layers of failure, with each)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(layer inhabited by dropouts schooled to believe that those who have consumed more education)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(deserve more privilege because they are more valuable assets to society as a whole. A society)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(constructed so that education by means of schools is a necessity for its functioning cannot be a just)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(society. Power tools having certain structural characteristics are inevitably manipulative and must also)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(be eliminated for the sake of justice. In a modern society, energy inputs represent one of the major)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(new liberties. Each man's ability to produce change depends on his ability to control low-entropy)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(energy. On this control of energy depends his right to give his meaning to the physical environment.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(His ability to act toward the future lie chooses depends on his control of the energy that gives shape to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(that future. Equal freedom in a society that uses large amounts of environmental energy means equal)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(control over the transformation of that energy and not just an equal claim to what has been done with)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(it.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Most of the power tools now in use favor centralization of control. industrial plants with their highly)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(specialized tools give neither the worker nor most engineers a choice over what use will be made of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the energy they manage. This is equally true, though less evident, of the high-powered consumer)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(tools that dominate our society. Most of them, such as cars and air conditioners, are too costly to be)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(available on an equal basis outside a few superrich societies. Others, such as mechanical household)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(devices, are so specialized in nature that they in no way offer more freedom than much simpler hand)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(tools. The monopoly of industrial production deprives even privileged clients of control over what)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(they may get. Few people get the cars that most people want, and GM designers can only build)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(vehicles to fit the existing roads.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Nations and multinational corporations have become means for the spreading empire of international)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(professions. Professional imperialism triumphs even where political and economic domination has)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(been broken. Schools everywhere are governed by pedagogues who read the same books on learning)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(theory and curriculum-planning. In a given year, schools produce more or less the same model of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(pupils in every nation. Nineteen-fifty graduates are as obsolete in Dakar as they are in Paris. The)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(same iatrogenic sicknesses are produced all over the world by doctors who administer chloromycin or)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(steroid pills. Every country tends to select those productive processes which are more)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(capital-intensive and promise greater cost-benefit ratios, so that the same kind of technological)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(unemployment is produced everywhere. Basic needs are defined as those that international)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(professions can meet. Since the local production of these wares is to the advantage of highly schooled)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(national \351lites, a country's doctors, teachers, and engineers will defend it as an antidote to foreign)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(domination. The knowledge capitalism of professional imperialism subjugates people more)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(imperceptibly than and as effectively as international finance or weaponry.)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(The principal source of injustice in our epoch is political approval for the existence of tools that by)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(their very nature restrict to a very few the liberty to use them in an autonomous way. The pompous)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(rituals by which each man is given a vote to choose between factions only cover up the fact that the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(imperialism of industrial tools is both arbitrary and growing. Statistics which prove increased outputs)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(and high per capita consumption of professionally defined quanta only veil the enormously high)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(invisible costs. People get better education, better health, better transportation, better entertainment,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(and often even better nourishment only if the experts' goals are taken as the measurement of what)Tj
0 -13.2 Td("better" means. The possibility of a convivial society depends therefore on a new consensus about)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(time destructiveness of imperialism on three levels: the pernicious spread of one nation beyond its)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(boundaries; the omnipresent influence of multinational corporations; and the mushrooming of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(professional monopolies over production. Politics for convivial reconstruction of society must)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(especially face imperialism on this third level, where it takes the form of professionalism. The public)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(owner-ship of resources and of the means of production, arid public control over the market and over)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(net transfers of power, must be complemented by a public determination of the tolerable basic)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(structure of modern tools. This means that politics in a postindustrial society must be mainly)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(concerned with the development of design criteria for tools rather than as now with the choice of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(production goals. These politics would mean a structural inversion of the institutions now providing)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(and defining new manmade essentials.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(To invert politics, it will not be enough to show that a convivial life style is possible, or even to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(demonstrate that it is more attractive than life in a society ruled by industrial productivity. We cannot)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(rest with the claim that this inversion would bring society closer to meeting the goals now stated as)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(those of our major in-stitutions. It is not even enough to show that a just or socially equal order can)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(become a reality only through a convivial reconstruction of tools and the consequent redefinition of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(ownership and power. We need a way to recognize that the inversion of present political purpose is)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(necessary for the survival of all people.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Most people have staked their self-images in the present structure and are unwilling to lose their)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(ground. They have found security in one of the several ideologies that support further)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(industrialization. They feel compelled to push the illusion of progress on which they are hooked. They)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(long for and expect increase\(h satisfaction, with less input of human energy and with more division of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(competence. They value handicraft and personal care as luxuries, but the ideal of a more)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(labor-intensive, yet modern, production process seems to them quixotic and anachronistic.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(It seems absurd to prepare politicians who have pledged themselves to increased outputs and better)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(distribution of goods and services among their constituents for the day when a majority of voters will)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(choose limits for all rather than promises of equal consumption. It appears equally hopeless to expect)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(inverse insight from humanitarian liberals who have come to feel that feeding the starving millions is)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(their vocation. They forget that people)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( eat,)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( amid that people die when they are)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( fed.)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( These)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(self-appointed keepers of their brothers make other people's survival depend on their own growing)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(efficiency. By shifting from the production of guns to the production of grains they reduce their sense)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of guilt amid increase their sense of power. They are blind to the convergence of population growth)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(and the failure of the green revolution, which guarantees that feeding people now will escalate)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(starvation by 1985. Their hubris distracts them from understanding that only the renunciation of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(industrial expansion can bring food and population into a balance in the so-called backward)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(countries. The attempt to feed people and to control their increase are two mutually reinforcing, and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(very dangerous, illusions. Nor can economists foresee institutional inversion when for them all)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(institutions must be evaluated according to the increase in their planned output and their ability to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(externalize internal dis-economics in an unobtrusive way. The terms and frameworks of economics)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(have been shaped by the ideology of an irresistible institutionalization of values that overarches)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(otherwise opposed economic creeds.)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(To translate the theoretical possibility of a postindustrial convivial life style into a political program)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(for new tools, it must soon be shown that the prevailing fundamental structure of our present tools)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(menaces the survival of mankind. It must be shown that this menace is imminent and that the effects)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of compulsive efficiency do more damage than good to most people in our generation. For this)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(purpose we must identify the range within which our present institutions have become frustrating, and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(we must recognize another range within which our tools become destructive of society as a whole.)Tj
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/F5 19 Tf 214.409 678.992 Td 0.000 Tc(III)Tj
/F5 15.8 Tf -61.955 -32.842 Td(The Multiple Balance)Tj
/F4 11 Tf -152.454 -80.168 Td(The human equilibrium is open. It is capable of shifting within flexible but finite parameters. People)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(can change, but only within bounds. In contrast, the present industrial system is dynamically unstable.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(It is organized for indefinite expansion and the concurrent unlimited creation of new needs, which in)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(an industrial environment soon become basic necessities.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Once the industrial mode of production has become dominant in a society, it may still admit shifts)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(from one type of output to another, but it does not admit limits to the further institutionalization of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(values. Such growth makes the incongruous demand that man seek his satisfaction by submitting to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the logic of his tools.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The demands made by tools on people become increasingly costly. This rising cost of fitting man to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the service of his tools is reflected in the ongoing shift from goods to services in over-all production.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Increasing manipulation of man becomes necessary to overcome the resistance of his vital equilibrium)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(to the dynamic of growing industries; it takes the form of educational, medical, and administrative)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(therapies. Education turns out competitive consumers; medicine keeps them alive in the engineered)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(environment they have come to require; bureaucracy reflects the necessity of exercising social control)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(over people to do meaningless work. The parallel increase in the cost of the defense of new levels of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(privilege through: military, police, and insurance measures reflects the fact that in a consumer society)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(there are inevitably two kinds of slaves: the prisoners of addiction and the prisoners of envy.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Political debate must now be focused on the various ways in which unlimited production threatens)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(human life. This political debate will be misled by those who insist on prescribing palliatives which)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(only disguise the deep reasons why the systems of health, transport, education, housing, and even)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(politics and law are not working. The environmental crisis, for example, is rendered superficial if it is)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(not pointed out that antipollution devices can only be effective if the total output of production)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(decreases. Otherwise they tend to shift garbage out of sight, push it into the future, or dump it onto the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(poor. The total removal of the pollution created locally by a large-scale industry requires equipment,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(material, and energy that can create several times the damage elsewhere. Making antipollution)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(devices compulsory only increases the unit cost of the product. This may conserve some fresh air for)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(all, because fewer people can afford to drive cars or sleep in air-conditioned homes or fly to a fishing)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(ground on the weekend, but it replaces damage to the physical environment with further social)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(disintegration. To shift from coal to atomic power replaces smog now with higher radiation levels)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(tomorrow. To relocate refineries overseas, where pollution controls are less stringent, preserves)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Americans-not Venezuelans-from unpleasant odors at the cost of higher levels of world-wide)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(poisoning.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The overgrowth of tools threatens persons in ways which are profoundly new, though they are also)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(analogous to traditional forms of nuisance and tort. These threats are of a new kind, because their)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(perpetrators and victims are the same people: both operators and clients of inexorably destructive)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(tools. Though some people may cash in on the game at first, ultimately all lose everything they have.)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(I will identify six ways in which all people of the world are threatened by industrial development after)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(passage through the second watershed: \(i\) Overgrowth threatens the right to the fundamental physical)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(structure of the environment with which man has evolved. \(2\) Industrialization threatens the right to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(convivial work. \(3\) The overprogramming of man for the new environment deadens his creative)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(imagination. \(4\) New levels of productivity threaten the right to participatory politics. \(5\) Enforced)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(obsolescence threatens the right to tradition: the recourse to precedent in language, myth, morals, and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(judgment. I will describe these five threats as distinct though interrelated categories all having in)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(common a destructive inversion of means into ends. \(6\) Pervasive frustration by means of compulsory)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(though engineered satisfaction constitutes a sixth and more subtle threat.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(I am typifying the hazards created by the overgrowth of tools in six categories chosen so the damages)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(can be recognized in traditional terms. That impersonal tools placed at the service of the injured party)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(should inevitably inflict the injury is new, but the damage which threatens each person is not. These)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(six categories can serve in the recovery of procedural principles by which people can expose and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(redress the present imbalance in the functioning of tools. These underlying principles of moral,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(political, and juridical procedure I assume to be three: recognition of the legitimacy of personal)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(conflict, the dialectic authority of history over present procedures, and the recourse to laymen or peers)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(for binding policy decisions. The radical functional inversion of our major institutions constitutes a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(revolution much more profound than the shifts in ownership or power usually proposed. It can be)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(neither envisaged nor enacted unless a basic structure of procedure is recovered and clearly agreed)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(upon. This structure can even now be discussed in concrete terms. I will therefore refer to formal)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(juristic concepts in illustrating my argument.)Tj
0 -66 Td(1.)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( Biological Degradation)Tj
/F4 11 Tf 0 -26.4 Td(The precarious balance between man and the biosphere has been recognized and has suddenly begun)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(to worry many people. The degradation of the environment is dramatic and highly visible. For years)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(car traffic in Mexico City increased steadily under a sparkling sky. Then, within a couple of years,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(smog descended and soon became worse than in Los Angeles. This phenomenon can be easily)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(discussed and appreciated by people who have never studied science. Poisons of unknown potency)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(are discharged into the biotic system of the earth. There is no way to retrieve some of them, nor any)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(means to predict how some of them may suddenly combine their action so that the whole earth, like)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Lake Erie or Baikal, will die. Man has evolved to fit into one niche in the universe. The earth is his)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(home. This home is now threatened by the impact of man.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Overpopulation, excessive affluence, and faulty technology are usually identified as the three trends)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(which combine and threaten to break the environmental balance. Paul Ehrlich points out that to face)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(honestly the need for population control and stabilized consumption may "expose one to the painful)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(criticism of being both anti-people and anti-poor," but he also emphasizes that "these unpopular)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(measures offer mankind's only hope for averting unprecedented misery." Ehrlich wants to implement)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(birth control with industrial efficiency. Barry Commoner insists that faulty technology, the third)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(element in the equation, accounts for most of the recent deterioration in the quality of the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(environment. He exposes himself to the criticism of being an antitechnological demagogue.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Commoner wants to retool industry rather than invert the basic structure of our tools.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Fascination with the environmental crisis has forced the debate about survival to focus on only one)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(balance threatened by tools. A one-dimensional dispute is futile. Three trends have indeed been)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(identified, each of them tending to upset the balance between man and the physical environment.)Tj
/F8 11 Tf 143.742 682 Td(Ivan Illich - Tools For Conviviality)Tj
295.026 -709 Td(33)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(Overpopulation makes more people dependent on limited resources. Affluence compels each person)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(to use more energy. Faulty technology degrades energy in an inefficient way.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(If these three trends are considered to be the only significant threats, and the physical environment is)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(considered as the only fundamental milieu that is threatened, only two central issues must be)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(discussed: \(i\) To decide which factor or trend has degraded the environment most, and which factor)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(will impose the greatest burden on the environment during the next few years. \(2\) To decide which)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(factor merits most attention because we can in some way reduce or invert it. One party claims it is)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(easier to do away with people, the other that it is more feasible to reduce entropy-producing)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(production.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Honesty requires that we each recognize the need to limit procreation, consumption, and waste, but)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(equally we must radically reduce our expectations that machines will do our work for us or that)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(therapists can make us learned or healthy. The only solution to the environmental crisis is the shared)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(insight of people that they would be happier if they could)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( work)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( together and)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( care)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( for each other. Such)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(an inversion of the current world view requires intellectual courage for it exposes us to the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(unenlightened yet painful criticism of being not only antipeople and against economic progress, but)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(equally against liberal education and scientific and technological advance. We must face the fact that)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the imbalance between man and the environment is just one of several mutually reinforcing stresses,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(each distorting the balance of life in a different dimension. In this view, overpopulation is the result of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(a distortion in the balance of learning, dependence on affluence is the result of a radical monopoly of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(institutional over personal values, and faulty technology is inexorably consequent upon a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(transformation of means into ends.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The one-dimensional debate among proponents of various panaceas for the ecological imbalance will)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(only inspire the false expectation that somehow human action can be engineered to fit into the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(requirements of the world conceived as a technological totality. Bureaucratically guaranteed survival)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(under such circumstances means the expansion of industrial economics to the point where a centrally)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(planned system of production and reproduction is identified with the guided evolution of the Earth. If)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(such an industrially minded solution becomes generally accepted as the only way of preserving a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(viable environment, the preservation of the physical milieu can become the rationale for a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(bureaucratic Leviathan at the levers which regulate levels of human reproduction, expectation,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(production, and consumption. Such a technological response to growing population, pollution, and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(affluence can be founded only on a further development of the presently prevailing institutionalization)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of values. The belief in the possibility of this development is founded on an erroneous supposition,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(namely, that "The historical achievement of science and technology has rendered possible the)Tj
/F6 11 Tf 0 -13.2 Td(translation of values into technical tasks-the)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( materialization of values. Consequently, what is at stake)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(is the redefinition of values in)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( technical terms,)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( as elements in technological process. The new ends, as)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(technical ends, would then operate in the project and in the construction of the machinery, and not)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(only in its utilization.")Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( \(* Herbert Marcuse,One-Dimensional Man, Boston, 1970.\))Tj
/F4 11 Tf 0 -26.4 Td(The re-establishment of an ecological balance depends on the ability of society to counteract the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(progressive materialization of values. Otherwise man will find himself totally enclosed within his)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(artificial creation, with no exit. Enveloped in a physical, social, and psychological milieu of his own)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(making, he will be a prisoner in the shell of technology, unable to find again the ancient milieu to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(which he was adapted for hundreds of thousands of years. The ecological balance cannot be)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(re-established unless we recognize again that only persons have ends and that only persons can work)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(toward them. Machines only operate ruthlessly to reduce people to the role of impotent allies in their)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(destructive progress.)Tj
/F8 11 Tf 143.742 655.6 Td(Ivan Illich - Tools For Conviviality)Tj
295.026 -709 Td(34)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 660.6 Td 0.000 Tc(2.)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( Radical Monopoly)Tj
/F4 11 Tf 0 -26.4 Td(When overefficient tools are applied to facilitate man's relations with the physical environment, they)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(can destroy the balance between man and nature. Overefficient tools corrupt the environment. But)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(tools can also be made overefficient in quite a different way. They can upset the relationship between)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(what people need to do by themselves and what they need to obtain ready-made. In this second)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(dimension overefficient production results in radical monopoly.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(By radical monopoly I mean a kind of dominance by one product that goes far beyond what the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(concept of monopoly usually implies. Generally we mean by "monopoly" the exclusive control by)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(one corporation over the means of producing \(or selling\) a commodity or service. Coca-Cola can)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(create a monopoly over the soft-drink market in Nicaragua by being the only maker of soft drinks)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(which advertises with modern means. Nestl\351 might impose its brand of cocoa by controlling the raw)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(material, some car maker by restricting imports of other makes, a television channel by licensing.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Monopolies of this kind have been recognized for a century as dangerous by-products of industrial)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(expansion, and legal devices have been developed in a largely futile attempt to control them.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Monop)Tj
/F6 11 Tf (olies of this)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( kind restrict the choices open to the consumer. They might even compel him to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(buy one product on the market, but they seldom simultaneously abridge his liberties in other domains.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(A thirsty man might desire a cold, gaseous, and sweet drink and find himself restricted to the choice)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of just one brand. He still remains free to quench his thirst with beer or water. Only if and when his)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(thirst is translated without meaningful alternatives into the need for a Coke would the monopoly)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(become radical. By "radical monopoly" I mean the dominance of one type of product rather than the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(dominance of one brand. I speak about radical monopoly when one industrial production process)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(exercises an exclusive control over the satisfaction of a pressing need, and excludes nonindustrial)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(activities from competition.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Cars can thus monopolize traffic. They can shape a city into their image--practically ruling out)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(locomotion on foot or by bicycle in Los Angeles. They can eliminate river traffic in Thailand. That)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(motor traffic curtails the right to walk, not that more people drive Chevies than Fords, constitutes)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(radical monopoly. What cars do to people by virtue of this radical monopoly is quite distinct from and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(independent of what they do by burning gasoline that could be transformed into food in a crowded)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(world. It is also distinct from automotive manslaughter. Of course cars burn gasoline that could be)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(used to make food. Of course they are dangerous and costly. But the radical monopoly cars establish)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(is destructive in a special way. Cars create distance. Speedy vehicles of all kinds render space scarce.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(They drive wedges of highways into populated areas, and then extort tolls on the bridge over the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(remoteness between people that was manufactured for their sake. This monopoly over land turns)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(space into car fodder. It destroys the environment for feet and bicycles. Even if planes and buses)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(could run as nonpolluting, nondepleting public services, their inhuman velocities would degrade)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(man's innate mobility and force him to spend more time for the sake of travel.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Schools tried to extend a radical monopoly on learning by redefining it as education. As long as)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(people accepted the teacher's definition of reality, those who learned outside school were officially)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(stamped "uneducated." Modern medicine deprives the ailing of care not prescribed by doctors.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Radical monopoly exists where a major tool rules out natural competence. Radical monopoly imposes)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(compulsory consumption and thereby restricts personal autonomy. It constitutes a special kind of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(social control because it is enforced by means of the imposed consumption of a standard product that)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(only large institutions can provide.)Tj
/F8 11 Tf 143.742 655.6 Td(Ivan Illich - Tools For Conviviality)Tj
295.026 -709 Td(35)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(The control of undertakers over burial shows how radical monopoly functions and how it differs from)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(other forms of culturally defined behavior. A generation ago, in Mexico, only the Opening of the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(grave and the blessing of the dead body were performed by professionals: the gravedigger and the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(priest. A death in the family created various demands, all of which could be taken care of within the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(family. The wake, the funeral, and the dinner served to compose quarrels, to vent grief, and to remind)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(each participant of the fatality of death and the value of life. Most of these were of a ritual nature and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(carefully prescribed-different from region to region. Recently, funeral homes were established in the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(major cities. At first undertakers had difficulty finding clients because even in large cities people still)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(knew how to bury their dead. During the sixties the funeral homes obtained control over new)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(cemeteries and began offering package deals, including the casket, church service, and embalming.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Now legislation is being passed to make the mortician's ministrations compulsory. Once he gets hold)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of the body, the funeral director will have established a radical monopoly over burial, as medicine is)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(at the point of establishing one over dying.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The current debate over health-care delivery in the United States clearly illustrates the entrenchment)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of a radical monopoly. Each political party in the debate makes sick-care a burning public issue and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(thereby relegates health care to an area about which politics has nothing important to say. Each party)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(promises more funds to doctors, hospitals, and drugstores. Such promises are not in the interest of the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(majority. They only serve to increase the power of a minority of professionals to prescribe the tools)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(men are to use in maintaining health, healing sickness, and repressing death. More funds will)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(strengthen the hold of the health industry over public resources and heighten its prestige and arbitrary)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(power. Such power in the hands of a minority will produce only an increase in suffering and a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(decrease in personal self-reliance. More money will be invested in tools that only postpone)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(unavoidable death and in services that abridge even further the civil rights of those who want to heal)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(each other. More money spent under the control of the health profession means that more people are)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(operationally conditioned into playing the role of the sick, a role they are not allowed to interpret for)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(themselves. Once they accept this role, their most trivial needs can be satisfied only through)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(commodities that are scarce by professional definition.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(People have a native capacity for healing, consoling, moving, learning, building their houses, and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(burying their dead. Each of these capacities meets a need. The means for the satisfaction of these)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(needs are abundant so long as they depend primarily on what people can do for themselves, with only)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(marginal dependence on commodities. These activities have use-value without having been given)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(exchange-value. Their exercise at the service of man is not considered labor.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(These basic satisfactions become scarce when the social environment is transformed in such a manner)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(that basic needs can no longer be met by abundant competence. The establishment of radical)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(monopoly happens when people give up their native ability to do what they can do for themselves and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(for each other, in exchange for something "better" that can be done for them only by a major tool.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Radical monopoly reflects the industrial institutionalization of values. It substitutes the standard)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(package for the personal response. It introduces new classes of scarcity and a new device to classify)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(people according to the level of their consumption. This redefinition raises the unit cost of valuable)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(service, differentially rations privilege, restricts access to resources, and makes people dependent.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Above all, by depriving people of the ability to satisfy personal needs in a personal manner, radical)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(monopoly creates radical scarcity of personal--as opposed to institutional-service.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Against this radical monopoly people need protection. They need this protection whether)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(consumption is imposed by the private interests of undertakers, by the government for the sake of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(hygiene, or by the self-destructive collusion between the mortician and the survivors, who want to do)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the best thing for their dear departed. They need this protection even if the majority is now sold on the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(professional's services. Unless the need for protection from radical monopoly is recognized, its)Tj
/F8 11 Tf 143.742 682 Td(Ivan Illich - Tools For Conviviality)Tj
295.026 -709 Td(36)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(multiple implementation can break the tolerance of man for enforced inactivity and passivity.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(It is not always easy to determine what constitutes compulsory consumption. The monopoly held by)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(schools is not established primarily by a law that threatens punishment to parent or child for truancy.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Such laws exist, but school is established by other tactics: by discrimination against the unschooled,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(by centralizing learning tools under the control of teachers, by restricting public funds earmarked for)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(baby-sitting to salaries for graduates from normal schools. Protection against laws that impose)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(education, vaccination, or life prolongation is important, but it is not sufficient. Procedures must be)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(used that permit any party who feels threatened by compulsory consumption to claim protection,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(whatever form the imposition takes. Like intolerable pollution, intolerable monopoly cannot be)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(defined in advance. The threat can be anticipated, but the definition of its precise nature can result)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(only from people's participation in deciding what may not be produced.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Protection against this general monopoly is as difficult as protection against pollution. People will)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(face a danger that threatens their own self-interest but not one that threatens society as a whole. Many)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(more people are against cars than are against driving them. They are against cars because they pollute)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(and because they monopolize traffic. They drive cars because they consider the pollution created by)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(one car insignificant, and because they do not feel personally deprived of freedom when they drive. It)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(is also difficult to be protected against monopoly when a society is already littered with roads,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(schools, or hospitals, when independent action has been paralyzed for so long that the ability for it)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(seems to have atrophied, and when simple alternatives seem beyond the reach of the imagination.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Monopoly is hard to get 4d of when it has frozen not only the shape of the physical world but also the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(range of behavior and of imagination. Radical monopoly is generally discovered only when it is too)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(late.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Commercial monopoly is broken at the cost of the few who profit from it. Usually, these few manage)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(to evade controls. The cost of radical monopoly is already borne by the public and will be broken only)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(if the public realizes that it would be better off paying the costs of ending the monopoly than by)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(continuing to pay for its maintenance. But the price will not be paid unless the public learns to value)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the potential of a convivial society over the illusion of progress. It will not be paid voluntarily by)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(those who confuse conviviality with intolerable poverty.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Some of the symptoms of radical monopoly are reaching public awareness, above all the degree to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(which frustration grows faster than output in even the most highly developed countries and under)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(whatever political regime. Policies aimed to ease this frustration may easily distract attention from the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(general nature of the monopoly at its roots, however. The more these reforms succeed in correcting)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(superficial abuses, the better they serve to bolster the monopoly I am trying to describe.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The first palliative is consumer protection. Consumers cannot do without cars. They buy different)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(makes. They discover that most cars are unsafe at any speed. So they organize to get safer, better, and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(more durable cars and to get more as well as wider and safer roads. Yet when consumers gain more)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(confidence in cars, the victory only increases society's dependence on high-powered vehicles-public)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(or private-and frustrates even more those who have to, or would prefer to, walk.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(While the organized self-protection of the addict-consumer immediately raises the quality of the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(dope and the power of the peddler, it also may lead ultimately to limits on growth. Cars may finally)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(become too expensive to purchase and medicines too expensive to test. By exacerbating the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(contradictions inherent in this institutionalization of values, majorities can more easily become aware)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of them. Discerning consumers who are discriminatory in their purchasing habits may finally discover)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(that they can do better by doing things for themselves.)Tj
/F8 11 Tf 143.742 668.8 Td(Ivan Illich - Tools For Conviviality)Tj
295.026 -709 Td(37)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(The second palliative proposed to cure growing frustration with growing output is planning. The)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(illusion is common that planners with socialist ideals might somehow create a socialist society in)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(which industrial workers constitute a majority. The proponents of this idea overlook the fact that)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(anticonvivial and manipulative tools can fit into a socialist society in only a very limited measure.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Once transportation, education, or medicine is offered by a government free of cost, its use can be)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(enforced by moral guardians. The underconsumer can be blamed for sabotage of the national effort. In)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(a market economy, someone who wants to cure his flu by staying in bed will be penalized only)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(through loss of income. In a society that appeals to the "people" to meet centrally determined)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(production goals, resistance to the consumption of medicine becomes an act of public immorality.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Protection against radical monopoly depends on a political consensus opposed to growth. Such a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(consensus is diametrically opposed to the issues now raised by political oppositions, since these)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(converge in the demand to increase growth and to provide more and better things for more completely)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(disabled people.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Both the balance that defines man's need for a hospitable environment and the balance that defines)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(everyone's need for authentic activity are now close to the breaking point. And still this danger does)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(not concern most people. It must now be explained why most people are either blind to this threat or)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(feel helpless to correct it. I believe that the blindness is due to the decline in a third balance-the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(balance of learning-and that the impotence people experience is the result of yet a fourth upset in)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(what I call the balance of power.)Tj
0 -66 Td(3.)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( Overprogramming)Tj
/F4 11 Tf 0 -26.4 Td(The balance of learning is determined by the ratio of two kinds of knowledge in a society. The first is)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(a result of the creative action of people on their environment, and the second represents the result of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(man's "trivialization" by his manufactured milieu. Their first kind of knowledge is derived from the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(primary involvement of people with each other and from their use of convivial tools; the second)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(accrues to them as a result of purposeful and programmed training to which they are subjected.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Speaking the mother tongue is learned in the first way, while some pupils learn mathematics in the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(second. No sane person would say that speaking or walking or nursing a child is primarily the result)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of education, while competence in mathematics, ballet dancing, or painting usually is.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The relation between what can be learned from ordinary living and what must be learned as a result of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(intentional teaching differs widely with place and time. It depends very much on rituals. All Muslims)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(learn some Arabic as the result of prayer. This learning evolves from interaction in a context bounded)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(by tradition. In much the same manner, peasants pick up the folk-lore of their region. Class and caste)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(also generate opportunities to learn. The rich acquire "proper" table manners or accents and insist that)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(these cannot be taught. The poor learn to fend in dignity where no education could teach the rich to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(survive.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Crucial to how much anyone can learn on his own is the structure of his tools: the less they are)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(convivial, the more they foster teaching. In limited and well-integrated tribes, knowledge is shared)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(quite equally among most members. All people know most of what everybody knows. On a higher)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(level of civilization, new tools are introduced; more people know more things, but not all know how)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(to execute them equally well. Mastery of skill does not yet imply a monopoly of understanding. One)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(can understand fully what a goldsmith does without being one oneself. Men do not have to be cooks)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(to know how to prepare food. This combination of widely shared information and competence for)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(using it is characteristic of a society in which convivial tools prevail. The techniques used are easily)Tj
/F8 11 Tf 143.742 682 Td(Ivan Illich - Tools For Conviviality)Tj
295.026 -709 Td(38)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(understood by observing the artisan at work, but the skills employed are complex and usually can be)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(acquired only through lengthy and programmed apprenticeship. Total learning expands when the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(range of spontaneous learning widens along with access to an increasing number of taught skills and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(both liberty and discipline flower. This expansion of the balance of learning cannot go on forever; it is)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(self-limiting. It can be optimized, but it cannot be forcibly extended. One reason is that man's life)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(span is limited. Another-just as inexorable-is that the specialization of tools and the division of labor)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(reinforce each other. When centralization and specialization grow beyond a certain point, they require)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(highly programmed operators and clients. More of what each man must know is due to what another)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(man has designed and has the power to force on him.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The city child is born into an environment made up of systems that have a different meaning for their)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(designers than for their clients. The inhabitant of the city is in touch with thousands of systems, but)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(only peripherally with each. He knows how to operate the TV or the telephone, but their workings are)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(hidden from him. Learning by primary experience is restricted to self-adjustment in the midst of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(packaged commodities. He feels less and less secure in doing his own thing. Cooking, courtesy, and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(sex become subject matters in which instruction is required. The balance of learning deteriorates: it is)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(skewed in favor of "education." People know what they have been taught, but learn little from their)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(own doing. People come to feel that they need "'education.")Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Learning thus becomes a commodity, and, like any commodity that is marketed, it becomes scarce.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(The nature of this scarcity is hidden-at a high cost-by the many forms education takes. Education can)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(be programmed preparation)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( for)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( life in the future in the form of packaged, serial instructions produced)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(by schools, or it can be constant communication)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( about)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( ongoing life through the output of the media)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(and through the instructions built into consumer goods. Sometimes these instructions are attached to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the item and must be read. In more thoroughly designed goods, the shape, color, and provoked)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(associations speak to the user about the way the item must be handled. Education can also become a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(periodic remedy for workers whose original training gets left behind by industrial innovation. When)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(people become obsolete and need constantly to renew their educational security, when the accountant)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(must be reprogrammed for each new generation of computers, then learning has indeed become)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(scarce. Educator becomes the most vulnerable and confusing issue in the society.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Everywhere the direct cost of training rises faster than the total output. This has been interpreted in)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(either of two ways. One interpretation assumes that education is a means to a social end. From this)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(perspective the capitalization of man through knowledge inputs is a necessary requirement for higher)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(productivity. The disproportionate growth rate of the educational sector means total production is)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(nearing an asymptote. To avoid this, ways must be found to increase the cost-benefit ratio in)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(education. Schools will be the first victims of a drive for rationalization in the production of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(knowledge capital. In my opinion, this is unfortunate. Although the school is destructive and quite)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(inefficient, its traditional character protects at least some rights of the pupil. Educators freed from the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(restraint of schools could be much more effective and deadly conditioners.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The second interpretation starts from the opposite assumption. According to this view, education is)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the most valuable output of institutional growth. The transition to a stationary state in the production)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of goods and perhaps even of energy will usher in an explosive growth in the production of invisible)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(commodities such as information, education, and fun. In this argument the marginal utility of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(education also decreases, but this is no reason to limit its production. Some economists go even)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(further. In the name of a misnamed quality of life they want to put the breaks on the manufacturing)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(sector when it interferes with the growth of the service sector, seemingly unaware of the stultifying)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(effects of escalating treatments. In neither of these two views is a distinction made between learning)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(by the use of convivial tools and learning through manipulation. Both views skew the balance of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(learning by increasing manipulative teaching and crushing autonomous questions. Those who treat)Tj
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295.026 -709 Td(39)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(education as a means for production and those who treat education as the supreme luxury product)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(agree on the need for more education. They upset the balance of learning in favor of more teaching.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(They assume that a modern world is inevitably so alien that it has passed beyond the reach of people)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(and can be known only by mystagogues and disciples.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The transformation of learning into education paralyzes man's poetic ability, his power to endow the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(world with his personal meaning. Man will wither away just as much if he is deprived of nature, of his)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(own work, or of his deep need to learn what he wants and not what others have planned that he should)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(learn. The overdetermination of the physical environment renders it hostile. Radical monopoly makes)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(people prisoners of welfare. Men overwhelmed by commodities are rendered impotent and in their)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(rage either kill or die. The corruption of the balance of learning makes people into puppets of their)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(tools.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Poets and clowns have always risen up against the oppression of creative thought by dogma. They)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(expose literal-mindedness with metaphor. They demonstrate the follies of seriousness in a framework)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of humor. Their intimate wonder dissolves certainties, banishes fears, and undoes paralysis. The)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(prophet can denounce creeds and expose superstitions and mobilize persons to use their lights and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(wits. Poetry, intuition, and theory can offer intimations of the advance of dogma against wit that may)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(lead to a revolution in awareness. Only the separation of Church and State, of compulsory knowledge)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(from political action, can redress the balance of learning. The law has been used, and can be used)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(again, to this purpose. The law has protected societies against the exaggerated claims of its priests,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(and can protect it against the claims of educators. Compulsory school attendance or other compulsory)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(treatment is analogous to compulsory attendance at a religious ritual. The law can disestablish it. The)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(law can be used against the rising cost of education, and against the use of education in the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(reproduction of a class society.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(To understand the rising cost of education, we must recognize two facts: first, that nonconvivial tools)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(create educational side effects which at some point become intolerable and, second, that education)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(which employs nonconvivial tools is economically unfeasible. The first recognition opens our eyes to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the possibility of a society where work and leisure and politics would favor learning and that could)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(function with less formal education; the second recognition permits us to set up educational)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(arrangements that favor self-initiated, self-chosen learning, and that relegate programmed teaching to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(limited, clearly specified occasions.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Throughout the world, highly capitalized tools require highly capitalized men. Following the Second)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(World War, economic development penetrated even "backward" areas. Spot industrialization created)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(an intense demand for schools to program people not only to operate but also to live with their new)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(tools. The establishment of more schools in Malaysia or Brazil teaches people the accountant's view)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of the value of time, the bureaucrat's view of the value of promotion, the salesman's view of the value)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of increased consumption, and the union leader's view of the purpose of work. People are taught all)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(this not by the teacher but by the curriculum hidden in the structure of school. It does not matter what)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the teacher teaches so long as the pupil has to attend hundreds of hours of age-specific assemblies to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(engage in a routine decreed by the curriculum and is graded according to his ability to submit to it.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(People learn that they acquire more value in the market if they spend more hours in class. They learn)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(to value progressive consumption of curricula. They learn that whatever a major institution produces)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(has value, even invisible things such as education or health. They learn to value grade advancement,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(passive submission, and even the standard misbehavior that teachers like to interpret as a sign of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(creativity. They learn disciplined competition for the favor of the bureaucrat who presides over their)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(daily sessions, who is called their teacher as long as they are in class and their boss when they go to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(work. They learn to define themselves as holders of knowledge stock in the specialty in which they)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(have made investments of their time. They learn to accept their place in society precisely in the class)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(and career corresponding to the level at which they leave school and to the field of their academic)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(specialization.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Industrial jobs are arranged so that the better-schooled fit into the scarcer slots. Scarce jobs are)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(defined as more productive, so people with less schooling are barred from access to the more)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(desirable goods produced in the new industries. Industrially produced shoes, bags, clothes, frozen)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(foods, and soft drinks drive off the market equivalent goods that had been convivially produced. As)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(production becomes more centralized and more capital-intensive, the screening process performed by)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(tax-supported schools not only costs more for those who get through it, but double-charges those)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(who do not.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Education becomes necessary not only to grade people for jobs but to upgrade them for consumption.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(As industrial output rises, it pushes the education system to exercise the social control necessary for)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(its efficient use. The housing industry in Latin-American countries is a good example of the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(educational diseconomies produced by architects. All the major cities in such countries are)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(surrounded by vast tracts of self-built)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( favelas, barriadas,)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( or)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( poblac\222ones.)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( Components for new)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(houses and utilities could be made very cheaply and designed for self-assembly. People could build)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(more durable, more comfortable, and more sanitary dwellings, as well as learn about new materials)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(and systems. But instead of supporting the ability of people to shape their own environment, the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(government deposits in these shantytowns public utilities designed for people who live in standard)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(modern houses. The presence of a new school, a paved road, and a glass-and-steel police station)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(defines the professionally built house as the functional unit, and stamps the self-built home a shanty.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(The law establishes this definition by refusing a building permit to people who cannot submit a plan)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(signed by an architect. People are deprived of their ability to invest their own time with the power to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(produce use-value, and are compelled to work for wages and to exchange their earnings for)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(industrially defined rented space. They are deprived also of the opportunity to learn while building.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Industrial society demands that some people be taught before they can drive a truck and that other)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(people be taught before they can build a house. Others must be taught how to live in apartment)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(buildings. Teachers, social workers, and policemen cooperate to keep people who have low-paying or)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(occasional jobs in houses they may not build or change. To accommodate more people on less land,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Venezuela and Brazil experimented with high-rise tenements. First, the police had to dislodge people)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(from their "slums" and resettle them in apartments. Then the social workers had to socialize tenants)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(who lacked sufficient schooling to understand that pigs may not be raised on eleventh-floor balconies)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(nor beans cultivated in their bathtubs.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(In New York people with less than twelve years of schooling are treated like cripples: they tend to be)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(unemployable, and are controlled by social workers who decide for them how to live. The radical)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(monopoly of overefficient tools exacts from society the increasing and costly conditioning of clients.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Ford produces cars that can be repaired only by trained mechanics. Agriculture departments turn out)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(high-yield crops that can be used only with the assistance of farm managers who have survived an)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(expensive school race. The production of better health, higher speeds, or greater yields depends on)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(more disciplined recipients. The real cost of these doubtful benefits is hidden by unloading much of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(them on the schools that produce social control.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Pressure for more and better conditioning of people in the name of education has led schools over)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(their second watershed. Planners make programs more varied and complex, but their marginal utility)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(thereby declines. Compulsory attendance has been extended to the point that it now can be defined by)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(teachers as independent study on the city streets, or as a field project supervised by the weavers of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Teotitlan del Valle.)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(Parallel with the growing pretensions of school, other agencies discovered their educational mission.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Newspapers, television, and radio were no longer just media of communication. They were pressed)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(into the service of socialization. Periodicals expanded to accommodate all fit news, which meant that)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(a few professional journalists got vast readerships, while the majority was reduced to token)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(representation in the ""Letters to the Editor" section.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The industrial manufacture and marketing of knowledge reduce the access of people to convivial tools)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(for self-initiated learning Witness the fate of the book. The book is the result of two major inventions)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(that enormously extended the balance of learning: the alphabet and the printing press. Both techniques)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(are almost ideally convivial. Almost anybody can learn to use them, and for his own purpose. They)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(use cheap materials. People can take them or leave them as they wish. They are not easily controlled)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(by third parties. Even the Soviet government cannot stop the)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( samizdat)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( circulation of subversive)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(typescripts.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The alphabet and the printing press have in principle deprofessionalized the recorded word. With the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(alphabet the merchant broke the monopoly of the priest over hieroglyphs. With cheap paper and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(pencil, and later with the typewriter and modern copying devices, a set of new techniques had in)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(principle opened the era of nonprofessional, truly convivial, communication by record. The tape)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(recorder and camera added new media to fully interactive communication. Yet the manipulative)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(nature of institutions and schooling for the acceptance of manipulation have put these ideally)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(convivial tools at the service of more one-way teaching. Schools train people in the use of constantly)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(revised textbooks. They produce readers of instructions and of news. The per capita purchase of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(nontechnical books by high-school graduates declines with the increased percentage of people who)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(finish high school. More books are written for the school-trained specialist, and the self-initiated)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(reading of books declines. More people spend more time hooked on the curriculum defined by new)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(principals: the publisher, the producer, and the program director. Every week they wait for)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( Time.)Tj
/F4 11 Tf 0 -26.4 Td(Even the library has become a component of a schooled world. As the library got "better," the book)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(was further withdrawn from the handy bookshelf. The reference librarian placed himself between)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(people and shelves; now he is being replaced by the computer. Putting the book into huge deposits)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(and into the hands of computers, the New York Public Library has become so expensive to operate)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(that it now opens only from ten to six weekdays and is open only partially on Saturdays. This means)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(that its books have become the specialized tool of readers who live on a grant to stay away from work)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(and school.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(At its best the library is the prototype of a convivial tool. Repositories for other learning tools can be)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(organized on its model, expanding access to tapes, pictures, records, and very simple labs filled with)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the same scientific instruments with which most of the major breakthroughs of the last century were)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(made.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Manipulative teaching tools raise the cost of learning. Now we only ask what people have to learn and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(then invest in a means to teach them. We should learn to ask first what people need if they want to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(learn and provide these tools for them. Professional teachers laugh at the idea that people would learn)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(more from random access to learning resources than they can be taught. In fact, they frequently cite as)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(proof for their skepticism the declining use of libraries. They overlook the fact that libraries are little)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(used because they have been organized as formidable teaching devices. Libraries are not used because)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(people have been trained to demand that they be taught. Neither are contraceptives, and for analogous)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(reasons we have to explore.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(People must learn to live within bounds. This cannot be)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( taught.)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( Survival depends on people)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( learning)Tj
/F4 11 Tf 0 -13.2 Td(fast what they)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( cannot)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( do. They must)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( learn)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( to abstain from unlimited progeny, consumption, and use.)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(It is impossible to)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( educate)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( people for voluntary poverty or to manipulate them into self-control. It is)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(impossible to)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( teach)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( joyful renunciation in a world totally structured for higher output and the illusion)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of declining costs.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(People must learn why and how to practice contraception. The reason is clear. Man has evolved in a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(small corner of the universe. His world is bounded by the resources of the ecosphere, and can)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(accommodate only a limited number of people. Technology has transformed the characteristics of this)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(niche. The ecosphere now accommodates a larger number of people, each less vitally adapted to the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(environment-each on the average having less space, less freedom to survive with simple means,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(fewer roots in tradition. The attempt to make a better environment has turned out to be as)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(presumptuous as the attempt to create better health, education, or communication. As a result there are)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(now more people, most of them less at home in the world. This large population can survive because)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of new tools. In turn, it spurs the search for even more powerful tools, and thereby demands more)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(radical monopoly; this monopoly, in its turn, calls for more and more education. But, paradoxically,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(what people most need to learn, they cannot be)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( taught)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( or)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( educated)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( to do. If they are voluntarily to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(keep their numbers and consumption within bounds, they must learn to do so by living active and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(responsible lives, or they will perish-passive though well informed, frustrated yet resigned. Voluntary)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(and therefore effective population control is impossible under conditions of radical monopoly and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(overprogramming. An efficient, specialized birth control program must fail in the same way that)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(schools and hospitals fail. It can start with a futile attempt at effective seduction. It will logically)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(escalate to enforced sterilization and abortion. Finally, it will provide a rationale for mega-deaths.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Voluntary and effective contraception is now absolutely necessary. If such contraception is not)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(practiced in the very near future, humanity is in danger of being crushed by its own size rather than by)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the power of its tools. But this universal practice cannot possibly be the result of some miracle tool. A)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(new practice, inverse to the present, can only be the result of a new relationship between people and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(their tools. The universal practice of effective contraception is a necessary premise for the limitation)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of tools which I advocate. But equally, the psychological inversion that will accompany a limitation)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of tools is a premise for the convivial psychological pressure necessary for effective contraception.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The devices needed for birth control are a paradigm for modern convivial tools. They incorporate)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(science in instruments that can be handled by any reasonably prudent and well-apprenticed person.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(They provide new ways to engage in the millenary practice of contraception, sterilization, and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(abortion. They are cheap enough to be made universally available. They are made to fit alternate)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(tasks, beliefs, and situations. They are obviously tools that structure the bodily relationship of each)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(individual to himself and to others. To be effective, some must be used by every adult, and many of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(them must be used every day. Birth control is an immense task. It must be accomplished within one)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(decade. It can be accomplished only in a convivial manner. It is ridiculous to try to control)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(populations with tools which by their nature are convivial while conditioning the population by)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(formal education to fit more effectively into an industrial and professional world. It is absurd to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(expect that Brazilian peasants can be taught to depend on doctors for injections and prescriptions, on)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(lawyers for conflict resolution, and on teachers for learning to read, while asking them to use the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(condom on their own. But it is equally fanciful to expect that Indian doctors will allow illiterate but)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(well-trained hospital assistants to compete with them in the per. formance of sterilizations. If the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(public realized that this delicate intervention could be equally or even more carefully performed by a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(layman whose attention, dexterity, and programming skills were refined in the weaving of saris,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(doctors would lose their monopoly on all interventions which are economically feasible for any)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(majority of people. Professional taboos and industrial tools stand and fall together once truly rational,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(postindustrial tools are available. Only the convergent use of convivial tools in all significant areas of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(need-satisfaction can render their use in each sector truly effective. Only among convivially)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(structured tools can people learn to use the new levels of power that modern technology can)Tj
/F8 11 Tf 143.742 682 Td(Ivan Illich - Tools For Conviviality)Tj
295.026 -709 Td(43)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(incorporate in them.)Tj
0 -66 Td(4.)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( Polarization)Tj
/F4 11 Tf 0 -26.4 Td(The present organization of tools impels societies to grow both in population and in levels of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(affluence. This growth takes place at the opposite ends of the privilege spectrum. The underprivileged)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(grow in number, while the already privileged grow in affluence. The underprivileged thus strengthen)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(their frustrating claims, while the rich defend their presumed rights and needs. Hunger and impotence)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(lead the poor to demand rapid industrialization, and the defense of growing luxuries pushes the rich)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(into more frantic production. Power is polarized, frustration is generalized, and the alternative of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(greater happiness at lower affluence is pushed into the blind spot of social vision.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(This blindness is a result of the broken balance of learning. People who are hooked on teaching are)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(conditioned to be customers for everything else. They see their own personal growth as an)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(accumulation of institutional outputs, and prefer what institutions)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( make)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( over what they themselves)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(can do. They repress the ability to discover reality by their own lights. The skewed balance of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(learning explains why the radical monopoly of commodities has become imperceptible. It does not)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(explain why people feel impotent to correct those profound disorders which they do perceive.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(This helplessness is the result of a fourth disruption: the growing polarization of power. Under the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(pressure of an expanding mega-machine, power is concentrated in a few hands, and the majority)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(becomes dependent on handouts. New levels of luxuriant overproduction grow faster than the output)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of commodities which this wanton production imposes.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(A 3 percent increase in the standard of living of the U.S. population costs twenty-five times as much)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(as a similar increase in the living standard of India, despite the greater size and more rapid growth of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the Indian population. Significant benefits for the poor demand a reduction of the resources used by)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the rich, while significant benefits for the rich make murderous demands on the resources of the poor.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Yet the rich pretend that by exploiting the poor nations they will become rich enough to create a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(hyperindustrial abundance for all. The \351lites of poor countries share this fantasy.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The rich will get richer and many more of the poor will be-come destitute during the next ten years.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(But anguish about the hungry should not prevent us from understanding the structural problem of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(power distribution that constitutes the fourth dimension of destructive overgrowth. Unchecked)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(industrialization modernizes poverty. Poverty levels rise and the gap between rich and poor widens.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(These two aspects must be seen together or the nature of destructive polarization will be missed.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Poverty levels rise because industrial staples are turned into basic necessities and have a unit cost)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(beyond what a majority could ever pay. The radical monopoly of industries has created new types of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(demeaning poverty in societies of sometimes profligate affluence. The former subsistence farmer is)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(put out of business by the green revolution. He earns more as a laborer, but he cannot give his)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(children their former diet. More importantly, the U.S. citizen with ten times his income is also)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(desperately poor. Both get increasingly less at greater cost.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The other side of modernized poverty is related but distinct. The power gap widens because control)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(over production is centralized to make the most goods for the greatest number. Whereas rising)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(poverty levels are due to the structure of industrial outputs, the gaping power lag is due to the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(structure of inputs. To seek remedies for the former without simultaneously dealing with the latter)Tj
/F8 11 Tf 143.742 682 Td(Ivan Illich - Tools For Conviviality)Tj
295.026 -709 Td(44)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(would only postpone and aggravate the world-wide modernization of poverty.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The surface effects of industrially concentrated power can be obviated by income equalization.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Progressive taxes without loopholes can be supplemented by social security, income supports, and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(equal welfare benefits for all. Confiscation of private capital beyond a certain limit can be attempted.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Keeping maximum close to minimum income is an even tougher way to stem personal enrichment)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(through the management of corporate power. But such curbs on personal income will be effective)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(only in regulating private consumption. It has no effect on equalizing the privileges that really count)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(in a society where the job has become more important than the home. As long as workers are graded)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(by the amount of manpower capital they represent, those who hold high denominations of knowledge)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(stock will be certified for the use of all kinds of timesaving privileges. The concentration of privileges)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(on a few is in the nature of industrial dominance.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(With the introduction of agriculture and animal husbandry, patriarchal government and some)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(centralization of power became feasible. At this stage political means could be used to get the power)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of many slaves under one man's control. One man could transform a multitude into a tool for the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(realization of his design. Religion, ideology, and the whip were the principal means of control. But)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the amount of power controlled was small. The centralization of power which now seems normal)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(could not have been imagined even a century ago.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(In modern society, energy conversion enormously exceeds the body power of all men. Manpower)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(stands to mechanical power in a ratio of 1:15 in China and 1:300 in the U.S.A. Switches concentrate)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the control over this power more effectively than whips ever could. The social distribution of control)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(over power inputs has been radically changed. If capital means the power to make effective change,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(power inflation has reduced most people to paupers.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(As tools get bigger, the number of potential operators declines. There are always fewer operators of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(cranes than of wheelbarrows. As tools become more efficient, more scarce resources are put at the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(service of the operator. On a Guatemalan construction site, only the engineer gets air conditioning in)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(his trailer. He is also the only one whose time is deemed so precious that he must be flown to the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(capital, and whose decisions seem so important that they are transmitted by shortwave radio. He has)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of course earned his privileges by cornering the largest amount of tax money and using it to acquire a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(university degree. The Indio who works on the gang does not notice the relative increase in privilege)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(between him and his Ladino gang boss, but the geometricians and draftsmen who also went to school,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(but did not graduate, feel the heat and the distance from their families in a new and acute way. Their)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(relative poverty has been aggravated by their bosses' claim to greater efficiency.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Never before have tools approached present power. Never before have they been so integrated at the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(service of a small \351lite. Kings could not claim divine right with as little challenge as executives claim)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(services for the sake of greater production. The Russians justify supersonic transport by saying it will)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(economize the time of their scientists. High-speed transportation, broad band-width communication,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(special health maintenance, and unlimited bureaucratic assistance are all explained as requirements to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(get the most out of the most highly capitalized people.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(A society with very large tools must rely on multiple devices to keep the majority from claiming the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(most expensive packages of privilege. These must be reserved for the most productive individuals.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(The most prestigious way to measure a person's productivity is by the price tag on his education)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(consumption. The higher a person's knowledge capital, the greater the social value placed on the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(decisions he "makes" and the more legitimate is his claim to high-level packages of industrial)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(outputs.)Tj
/F8 11 Tf 143.742 668.8 Td(Ivan Illich - Tools For Conviviality)Tj
295.026 -709 Td(45)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(When the legitimacy of educational certification breaks down, other more primitive forms of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(discrimination are bound to assume renewed importance. People are judged to be less valuable)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(manpower because they are born in the Third World, because they are black, because they are)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(women, because they belong to the wrong group or party, or because they cannot pass the right)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(battery of tests. The scene is set for the multiplication of minority movements, each one claiming its)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(share, and each one destined to be foiled by its own intent.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Hierarchies must rise and conglomerate as they extend over fewer and larger corporations. A seat in a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(high-rise job is the most coveted and contested product of expanding industry. The lack of schooling,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(compounded with sex, color, and peculiar persuasions, now keeps most people down. Minorities)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(organized by women, or blacks, or the unorthodox succeed at best in getting some of their members)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(through school and into an expensive job. They claim victory when they get equal pay for equal rank.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Paradoxically, these movements strengthen the idea that unequal graded work is necessary and that)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(high-rise hierarchies are necessary to produce what an egalitarian society needs. If properly schooled,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the black porter will blame himself for not being a black lawyer. At the same time, schooling)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(generates a new intensity of frustration which ultimately can act as social dynamite.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(It does not matter for what specific purpose minorities now organize if they seek an equal share in)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(consumption, an equal place on the pyramid of production, or equal nominal power in the government)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of ungovernable tools. As long as a minority acts to increase its share within a growth-oriented)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(society, the final result will be a keener sense of inferiority for most of its members.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Movements that seek control over existing institutions give them a new legitimacy, and also render)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(their contradictions more acute. Changes in management are not revolutions. The shared control of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(workers and women, or blacks and the young, does not constitute a social reconstruction if what they)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(claim to control are industrial corporations. Such changes are at best new ways to administer an)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(industrial mode of production which, thanks to these shifts, continues unchallenged. More commonly,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(these changes are professional insurgencies against the)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( status quo.)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( They expand management, and, at)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(an even faster rate, they degrade labor. A new desk usually means more capital-intensive production)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(in one firm and a new guarantee of so-called underemployment somewhere else in society. A)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(majority loses further productive ability, and a minority is forced to seek new reasons and weapons to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(protect its privilege.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(New classes of underconsumers and of underemployed are one of the inevitable by-products of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(industrial progress. Organization makes them aware of their common plight. At present articulate)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(minorities-often claiming the leadership of majorities--seek equal treatment. If one day they were to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(seek equal work rather than equal pay-equal inputs rather than equal outputs-they could be the pivot)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of social reconstruction. Industrial society could not possibly resist a strong women's movement, for)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(example, which would lead to the demand that all people, without distinction, do equal work. Women)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(are integrated into all classes and races. Most of their daily activities are performed in nonindustrial)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(ways. Industrial societies remain viable precisely because women are there to perform those daily)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(tasks which resist industrialization. It is easier to imagine that the North American continent would)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(cease to exploit the underindustrialization of South America than that it would cease to use its women)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(for industry-resistant chores. In a society ruled by the standards of industrial efficiency, housework is)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(rendered inhuman and devalued. It would be rendered even less tolerable if it were given)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( pro-forma)Tj
/F4 11 Tf 0 -13.2 Td(industrial status. The further expansion of industry would be brought to a halt if women forced upon)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(us the recognition that society is no longer viable if a single mode of production prevails. The)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(effective recognition that not two but several equally valuable, dignified, and important modes of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(production must coexist within any viable society would bring industrial expansion under control.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Growth would stop if women obtained equally creative work for all, instead of demanding equal)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(rights over the gigantic and expanding tools now appropriated by men.)Tj
/F8 11 Tf 143.742 682 Td(Ivan Illich - Tools For Conviviality)Tj
295.026 -709 Td(46)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 660.6 Td 0.000 Tc(5.)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( Obsolescence)Tj
/F4 11 Tf 0 -26.4 Td(Convivial reconstruction demands the disruption of the present monopoly of industry, but not the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(abolition of all industrial production. It does imply the adoption of labor-intensive tools, but not the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(regression to inefficient tools. It requires a considerable reduction of all kinds of now compulsory)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(therapy, but not the elimination of teaching, guidance, or healing for which individuals take personal)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(responsibility. Neither must a convivial society be stagnant. Its dynamics depend on wide distribution)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of the power to make effective change. In the present scheme of large-scale obsolescence a few)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(corporate centers of decision-making impose compulsory innovation on the entire society. Continued)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(convivial reconstruction depends on the degree to which society protects the power of individuals and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of communities to choose their own styles of life through effective, small-scale renewal.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(I have shown that social polarization is the result of two complementary factors: the excessive cost of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(industrially produced and advertised products, and the excessive rarity of jobs that are considered)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(highly productive. Obsolescence, on the other hand, produces devaluation--which is the result not of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(a certain general rate of change but of change in those products which exercise a radical monopoly.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Social polarization depends on the fact that industrial inputs and outputs come in units so large that)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(most people are excluded from them. Obsolescence, on the other hand, can become intolerable even)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(when people are not directly priced out of the market. Product elaboration and obsolescence are two)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(distinct dimensions of overefficiency, both of which underpin a society of hierarchically layered)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(privilege.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(It does not really matter if forced obsolescence becomes destructive of old models or of old functions,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(if Ford discontinues the distribution of spare parts for its 1955 model, or if the police rule old cars off)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the road because they lack features that safety lobbyists have made standard. Renewal is intrinsic to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the industrial mode of production coupled to the ideology of progress. Products cannot be improved)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(unless huge machines are)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( retooled--and)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( in the technical sense engineers have given this word. To)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(make this pay, huge markets must be created for the new model. The most effective way to open a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(market is to identify the use of what is new as an important privilege. If this identification succeeds,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the old model is devalued and the self-interest of the consumer is wedded to the ideology of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(never-ending and progressive consumption. Individuals are socially graded according to the number)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of years their bill of goods is out of date. Some people can afford to keep up with the Joneses who buy)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the latest model, while others still use cars, stoves, and radios that are five to ten years old-and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(probably spend their vacations in places that are just as many years out of style. They know where)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(they fit on the social ladder.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The social grading of individuals by the age of the things they use is not just a capitalist practice.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Wherever the economy is built around the large-scale production of elaborate and obsolescent)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(packages of staples, it is only the privileged who have access to the newest model of services and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(goods. Only)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( a)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( few nurses get the most recent course in anesthesiological nursing, and only a few)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(functionaries get the new model of)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( a)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( "people's car." The members of this minority within a minority)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(recognize each other by the recent date at which the products they use came onto the market, and it)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(makes little difference whether they use them at home or at work.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Industrial innovations are costly, and managers must justify their high cost by producing measurable)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(proof of their superiority. Under the rule of industrial socialism, pseudo science will have to provide)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the alibi, while in market economies, appeal can be made to a survey of consumer opinion. In any)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(case, periodic innovations in goods or tools foster the belief that anything new will be proven better.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(This belief has become an integral part of the modern world view. It is forgotten that whenever a)Tj
/F8 11 Tf 143.742 682 Td(Ivan Illich - Tools For Conviviality)Tj
295.026 -709 Td(47)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(society lives by this delusion, each marketed unit generates more wants than it satisfies. If new things)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(are made because they are better, then the things most people use are not quite good. New models)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(constantly renovate poverty. The consumer feels the lag between what he has and what he ought to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(get. He believes that products can be made measurably more valuable and allows himself to be)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(constantly re-educated for their consumption. The "better" replaces the "good" as the fundamental)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(normative concept.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(In a society caught up in the race for the better, limits on change are experienced as a threat. The)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(commitment to the better at any cost makes the good impossible at all costs. Failure to renew the bill)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of goods frustrates the expectation of what is possible, while renewal of the bill of goods intensifies)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the expectations of unattainable progress. What people have and what they are about to get are)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(equally exasperating to them. Accelerating change has become both addictive and intolerable. At this)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(point the balance among stability, change, and tradition has been upset; society has lost both its roots)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(in shared memories and its bearings for innovation. Judgment on precedents has lost its value.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(One of the major objections against a stationary-state economy is the fear that the production of a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(limited and durable number of goods would set intolerable limits on the freedom of innovation and of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(scientific exploration. This would be justified if I were discussing the transition from the present)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(industrial society to its next model: clean and limited production of goods and unlimited growth in the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(service sector. I am not, however, discussing the evolution of industrial society, but the transition to a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(new mixed mode of production.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Industrial innovations are planned, trivial, and conservative. The renewal of convivial tools would be)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(as unpredictable, creative, and lively as the people who use them. Scientific progress is also dulled by)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the present identification of research with industrial development. Most of the cost of research derives)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(from its competitive nature and pressure; most of its tools are restricted to people who have been)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(carefully programmed to look at the world through the prisms of profit and power; most of its goals)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(are set by the need for more power and efficiency. Leisurely scientific research does not exclude a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(bevatron or some ultracentrifuges; removal of access restrictions now created by schools would again)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(admit the curious, rather than the orthodox, to the alchemist's vault; and study for its own sake would)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(produce more surprises than team research on how to eliminate production snags.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(A changeless society would be as intolerable for people as the present society of constant change.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Convivial reconstruction requires limits on the rate of compulsory change. An unlimited rate of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(change makes lawful community meaningless. Law is based on the retrospective judgment of peers)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(about circumstances that occur ordinarily and are likely to occur again. If the rate of change which)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(affects all circumstances accelerates beyond some point, such judgments cease to be valid. Lawful)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(society breaks down. Social control does not accommodate community participation and becomes the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(function of experts. Educators define how people are to be trained and retrained throughout their)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(lives--shaped and reshaped until they fit the demands of industry and are attracted by its profits.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Ideologues define what is right or wrong. The tooling of man for the milieu becomes the major)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(industry when this milieu changes beyond a certain rate; then man's need for language and law, for)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(memories and myths, imposes limits to the change of tools.)Tj
/F6 11 Tf 0 -66 Td(6. Frustration)Tj
/F4 11 Tf 0 -26.4 Td(I have identified five realms in each of which the efficiency of tools can upset the balance of life.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Faulty technology can render the environment uninhabitable. Radical monopoly can force the demand)Tj
/F8 11 Tf 143.742 682 Td(Ivan Illich - Tools For Conviviality)Tj
295.026 -709 Td(48)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(for affluence to the point of paralyzing the ability to work. Overprogramming can transform the world)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(into a treatment ward in which people are constantly taught, socialized, normalized, tested, and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(reformed. Centralization and packaging of institutionally produced values can polarize society into)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(irreversible structural despotism. And, finally, engineered obsolescence can break all bridges to a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(normative past. In each or several of these dimensions a tool can threaten survival by making it)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(unfeasible for most people to relate themselves in action to one of the great dimensions of their)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(environment.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(In the assessment of society it is not sufficient to select just one of these realms. Each one of these)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(balances must be preserved.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Even clean and equally distributed electricity could lead to intolerable radical monopoly of power)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(tools over man's personal energy. Not only compulsory schools but pervasive teaching media can be)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(used to upset the balance of learning or to polarize society into an oppressive meritocracy. Any form)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of engineering can lead to unendurable obsolescence. It is true that man's physical niche is threatened;)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(but just as he evolved within one particular physiological environment, so he also evolved within a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(social, political and psychological environment which can also be irreversibly destroyed. Mankind)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(may wither and disappear because he is deprived of basic structures of language, law, and myth, just)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(as much as he can be smothered by smog. Future shock can destroy what is human just as much as)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(radical monopoly or social polarization.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(I have argued that in each of five realms conceptual criteria can be used to recognize escalating)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(imbalance. These criteria serve as guidelines for political processes by which the members of a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(technological society can develop constitutive boundaries within which tools must be kept. Such)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(boundaries circumscribe the kind of power structures that can be kept under the control of people. By)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(growing beyond this range, tools escape political control. Man's ability to claim his rights is)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(extinguished by his bondage to processes over which he has no say. Biological functions, work,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(meaning, freedom, and roots--insofar as he can still enjoy them-are reduced to concessions, which)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(optimize the logic of tools. Man is reduced to an indefinitely malleable resource of a corporate state.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Without constitutive limits translated into constitutional provisions survival in dignity and freedom is)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(squelched.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Present research is overwhelmingly concentrated in two directions: research and development for)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(breakthroughs to the better production of better wares and general systems analysis concerned with)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(protecting man for further consumption. Future research ought to lead in the opposite direction; let us)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(call it counterfoil research. Counterfoil research also has two major tasks: to provide guidelines for)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(detecting the incipient stages of murderous logic in a tool; and to devise tools and tool systems that)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(optimize the balance of life, thereby maximizing liberty for all.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Counterfoil research is not a new branch of science, nor is it some interdisciplinary project. It is the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(dimensional analysis of the relationship of man to his tools. It seems obvious that each person lives in)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(several concentric social environments. To each social environment there corresponds a set of natural)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(scales. This is true for the primary group, for the production unit, for the city, the state, and the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(organization of men on the globe. To each of these social environments there correspond certain)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(characteristic distances, periods, populations, energy sources, and energy sinks. In each of these)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(dimensions tools that require time periods or spaces or energies much beyond the order of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(corresponding natural scales are dysfunctional. They upset the homeostasis which renders the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(particular environment viable. At present we tend to define human needs in terms of abstract goals)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(and treat these as problems to which technocrats can apply escalating solutions. What we need is)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(rational research on the dimensions within which technology can be used by concrete communities to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(implement their aspirations without frustrating equivalent aspirations by others.)Tj
/F8 11 Tf 143.742 682 Td(Ivan Illich - Tools For Conviviality)Tj
295.026 -709 Td(49)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(The barriers beyond which destruction looms are of a different nature from the boundaries within)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(which a society freely constrains its tools. The former establish the realm of possible survival; the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(latter determine the shape of a culturally preferred environment. The former define the conditions for)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(uniform regimentation; the latter set the conditions of convivial justice. The boundaries of doom are)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(constitutive requirements common to all postindustrial societies. Statutory characteristics setting more)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(narrow bounds than those absolutely necessary are the result of joint options made in a commonweal,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(as a result of its members' defining their life style and their level of liberty.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Supersonic transports could be easily ruled out to protect the environment, air transport to avoid social)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(polarization, cars to protect against radical monopoly. The balance of purpose I want to highlight at)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(this point provides a further criterion by which to select desirable tools. In view of this balance it)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(might even be possible to exclude public transportation moving at high velocity.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(There is a form of malfunction in which growth does not yet tend toward the destruction of life, yet)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(renders a tool antagonistic to its specific aims. Tools, in other words, have an optimal, a tolerable, and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(a negative range. Tolerable overefficiency also disturbs a balance, but a balance of a subtler and more)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(subjective kind than those discussed before. The balance here threatened is that between personal cost)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(and return. It can be expressed more generally as the perception of the balance between means and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(ends. When ends become subservient to the tools chosen for their sake, the user first feels frustration)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(and finally either abstains from their use or goes mad. Compulsory maddening behavior in Hades was)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(considered the ultimate punishment reserved for blasphemy. Sisyphus was forced to keep rolling a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(stone uphill, only to see it roll back down. When maddening behavior becomes the standard of a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(society, people learn to compete for the right to engage in it. Envy blinds people and makes them)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(compete for addiction.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Wherever the maximum velocity of any one type of commuter vehicle grows beyond a certain mph,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the travel time and the cost of transportation for the median commuter is increased. If the maximum)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(velocity at any one point of a commuter system goes beyond a certain mph, most people are obliged)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(to spend more time in traffic jams, or waiting for connections, or recovering from accidents. They will)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(also have to spend more time paying for the transportation system they are compelled to use.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The critical velocity depends to a certain extent on a variety of factors: geography, culture, market)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(controls, level of technology, and money flow. With so many variables affecting a quantity, it would)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(seem that its value could fluctuate over a very wide range. Just the contrary is true. Once it is)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(understood that we refer to any vehicular velocity in the transportation of people within a community,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(we find that the range within which the critical velocity can vary is very narrow. It is, in fact, so)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(narrow and so low that it seems improbable and not worth the time of most traffic engineers to worry)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(about.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Commuter transportation leads to negative returns when it admits, anywhere in the system, speeds)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(much above those reached on a bicycle. Once the barrier of bicycle velocity is broken at any point in)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the system, the total per capita monthly time spent at the service of the travel industry increases.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(High output leads to time lack. Time becomes scarce, partly because it takes time to consume goods)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(and to undergo therapies, and partly because dependence on production makes abstention from it)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(more costly. The richer we get in a consumer society, the more acutely we become aware of how)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(many grades of value--of both leisure and labor--we have climbed. The higher we are on the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(pyramid, the less likely we are to give up time to simple idleness and to apparently nonproductive)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(pursuits. The joy of listening to the neighborhood finch is easily overshadowed by stereophonic)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(recordings of "Bird Songs of the World," the walk through the park downgraded by preparations for a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(packaged bird-watching tour into the jungle. It becomes difficult to economize time when all)Tj
/F8 11 Tf 143.742 682 Td(Ivan Illich - Tools For Conviviality)Tj
295.026 -709 Td(50)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(commitments are for the long run. Staffan Linder points out that there is a strong tendency for us to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(over-commit the future, so that w hen the future becomes present, we seem to be conscious all the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(time of having an acute scarcity, simply because we have committed ourselves to about thirty hours a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(day instead of twenty-four. In addition to the mere fact that time has competitive uses and high)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(marginal utility in an affluent society, this overcommitment creates a sense of pressure and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(harriedness.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Life in a society where speedy transportation is taken for granted renders time scarce in both of these)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(ways. Activities related to the use of speedy vehicles by)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( many)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( people in a society occupy an)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(increasing percentage of the time budget of)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( most)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( members of that society, as the speed of the vehicles)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(increases beyond a certain point. Beyond this point the competition of transportation activities with)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(stationary activities becomes fierce, especially competition for the allocation of limited real estate and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(available energy. This competition seems to grow exponentially with the rise of speed. The time)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(reserved for commuting displaces both work and leisure time. Hence, the speedier vehicles are, the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(more it becomes important to keep them filled at all times. If they are individual capsules, they tend to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(become disproportionately costly and scarce. If they are public vehicles, they tend to be large, and run)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(at infrequent intervals or along only a few routes.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(As speed increases, the adaptation of life patterns to vehicles becomes more tyrannical. It becomes)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(necessary to make constant corrections and amendments to the allocation of shorter periods. It)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(becomes necessary to make appointments and commitments months or even years ahead. Since some)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of these commitments, which have been made at great cost, cannot be kept, there is a sense of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(constant failure which produces a sense of constant tension. Man has only a limited ability to submit)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(to programming. When speed increases beyond a certain point, the transportation system vies with)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(other systems in exhausting human tolerance for social controls.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Machines turn against men at a much lower level of power than would be ruled out by the first five)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(criteria. But while these criteria identify necessary safeguards for life and liberty, the)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( balance of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(purpose)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( depends on a different kind of value. Conceptual rather than empirical criteria can be set for)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the constitutional limitation of power. It ought to be relatively easy for a majority to rule what abuse it)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(will take from any minority, or what damage it will not expose its offspring to. The recognition of the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(most socially desirable power of a tool is of a different nature; it can only be the outcome of political)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(procedure. The value obtained for time wasted on speed transportation is conditioned by the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(consensus in a community about the level of its freedom as a concrete option of its civilization.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Transportation beyond bicycle speeds demands power inputs from the environment. Velocity)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(translates directly into power, and soon power needs increase exponentially. In the United States, 22)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(percent of the energy converted drives vehicles, and another 10 percent keeps roads open for them.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(The amount of energy is comparable to the total energy--except for domestic heating-required for)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the combined economies of India and China. The energy used up in the United States for the sole)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(purpose of driving vehicles built to accelerate beyond bicycle speed would suffice to add auxiliary)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(motors to about twenty times that many vehicles for people all over the world who want to move at)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(bicycle speeds and do not or cannot push the pedals because they are sick or old, or because they want)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(to transport a heavy load or move over a great distance, or because they just want to relax. Simply on)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the basis of equal distribution on a world-wide scale, speeds above those attained by bicycles could)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(be ruled out. It is of course mere fantasy to assume an egalitarian consensus sufficiently strong to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(accept such a proposal. At closer inspection though, many communities will find that the very same)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(speed limit necessary for equal distribution of mobility is also very close to the optimum velocity)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(giving maximum value to community life. At 20 mph constant speed Phileas Fogg could have made)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(his trip around the world in half of eighty days. Simulation studies would be useful for exploring)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(imaginative policies that seek optimal liberty with convivial power tools. To whose advantage would)Tj
/F8 11 Tf 143.742 682 Td(Ivan Illich - Tools For Conviviality)Tj
295.026 -709 Td(51)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(Calcutta's traffic flow stabilize if speeds were limited to 10 mph? What price would Peru's military)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(pay for limiting the nation's speed to 20 mph? What gains in equality, activity, health, and freedom)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(would result from limiting all other vehicles to the speed of bicycles and sailing ships?)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Negative returns are not unique to transportation. Ninety percent of all medical care for patients with)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(terminal diseases is unrelated to their health; such treatment tends to increase suffering and disability)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(without demonstrably lengthening life. The maximum feasibility of service for the optimum care of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(an individual patient lies within a certain range. Beyond this range medical bills measure the health of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(a patient in the same way that GNP measures the wealth of a nation. Both add on the same scale the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(market value of benefits and the defensive expenditures which become necessary to offset the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(unwanted side effects of their production. The technological escalation of medicine first ceases to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(serve healing and then ceases to prolong life. It turns into a death-denying ritual of terminal care: a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(final race in which the personality best fitted to machines turns in the most spectacular performance.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Counterfoil research is concerned first with an analysis of increasing marginal disutility and the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(menace of growth. It is then concerned with the discovery of general systems of institutional structure)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(which optimize convivial production. This kind of research meets psychological resistance. Growth)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(has become addictive. Like heroin addiction, the habit distorts basic value judgments. Addicts of any)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(kind are willing to pay increasing amounts for declining satisfactions. They have become tolerant to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(escalating marginal disutility. They are blind to deeper frustration because they are absorbed in)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(playing for always mounting stakes. Minds accustomed to thinking that transportation ought to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(provide speedy motion rather than reduction of the time and effort spent moving are boggled by this)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(contrary hypothesis. Man is inherently mobile, and speeds higher than those he can achieve by the use)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of his limbs must be proven to be of great social value to warrant support by public sacrifice.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Counterfoil research must clarify and dramatize the relationship of people to their tools. It ought to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(hold constantly before the public the resources that are available and the consequences of their use in)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(various ways. It should impress on people the existence of any trend that threatens one of the major)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(balances on which life depends. Counterfoil research leads to the identification of those classes of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(people most immediately hurt by such trends and helps people to identify themselves as members of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(such classes. It points out how a particular freedom can be jeopardized for the members of various)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(groups which have otherwise conflicting interests. Counterfoil research involves the public by)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(showing that the demands for freedom of any group or alliance can be identified with the implicit)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(interest of all.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Withdrawal from growth mania will be painful, but mostly for members of the generation which has)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(to experience the transition and above all for those most disabled by consumption. If their plight could)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(be vividly remembered, it might help the next generation avoid what they know would enslave them.)Tj
/F8 11 Tf 143.742 510.4 Td(Ivan Illich - Tools For Conviviality)Tj
295.026 -709 Td(52)Tj
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/F5 15.8 Tf -21.105 -32.842 Td(Recovery)Tj
/F4 11 Tf -193.836 -53.768 Td(I have discussed five dimensions on which the balance of life depends. In each I have indicated)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(tendencies that must be kept in equilibrium to maintain the homeostasis which constitutes human life.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(I have argued that the control of natural forces is functional only if the use of nature does not make)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(nature useless for man. I have argued that institutions are functional when they promote a delicate)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(balance between what people can do for themselves and what tools at the service of anonymous)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(institutions can do for them. Formal instruction also depends on a balance. Special arrangements must)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(never outweigh opportunities for independent learning. An increase in social mobility can render)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(society more human, but only if at the same time there is a narrowing of the difference in power)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(which separates the few from the many. Finally, an increase in the rate of innovation is of value only)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(when with it rootedness in tradition, fullness of meaning, and security are also strengthened.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(A tool can grow out of man\222s control, first to become his master and finally to become his)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(executioner. Tools can rule men sooner than they expect: the plow makes man the lord of a garden but)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(also the refugee from a dust bowl. Nature's revenge can produce children less fit for life than their)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(fathers, and born into a world less fit for them.)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( Homo faber)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( can be turned into a sorcerer's apprentice.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Specialization can make his every day so complicated that it becomes estranged from his activity.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Addiction to progress can enslave all men to a race in which none ever reaches the goal.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(There are two ranges in the growth of tools: the range within which machines are used to extend)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(human capability and the range in which they are used to contract, eliminate, or replace human)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(functions. In the first, man as an individual can exercise authority on his own behalf and therefore)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(assume responsibility. In the second, the machine takes over--first reducing the range of choice and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(motivation in both the operator and the client, and second imposing its own logic and demand on)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(both. Survival depends on establishing procedures which permit ordinary people to recognize these)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(ranges and to opt for survival in freedom, to evaluate the structure built into tools and institutions so)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(they can exclude those which by their structure are destructive, and control those which are useful.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Exclusion of the malignant tool and control of the expedient tool are the two major priorities for)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(politics today. Multiple limits to overefficiency must be expressed in language that is simple and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(politically effective. This urgent task is faced, however, with three formidable obstacles: the idolatry)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of science, the corruption of ordinary language, and loss of respect for the formal process by which)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(social decisions are made.)Tj
0 -66 Td(1.)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( The Demythologization of Science)Tj
/F4 11 Tf 0 -26.4 Td(Above all, political discussion is stunned by a delusion about science. This term has come to mean an)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(institutional enterprise rather than a personal activity, the solving of puzzles rather than the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(unpredictably creative activity of individual people. Science is now used to label a spectral production)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(agency which turns out better knowledge just as medicine produces better health. The damage done)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(by this misunderstanding about the nature of knowledge is even more fundamental than the damage)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(done to the conceptions of health, education, or mobility by their identification with institutional)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(outputs. False expectations of better health corrupt society, but they do so in only one particular sense.)Tj
/F8 11 Tf 143.742 684.218 Td(Ivan Illich - Tools For Conviviality)Tj
295.026 -709 Td(53)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(They foster a declining concern with healthful environments, healthy life styles, and competence in)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the personal care of one's neighbor. Deceptions about health are circumstantial. The)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(institutionalization of knowledge leads to a more general and degrading delusion. It makes people)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(dependent on having their knowledge produced for them. It leads to a paralysis of the moral and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(political imagination.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(This cognitive disorder rests on the illusion that the knowledge of the individual citizen is of less)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(value than the "knowledge" of science. The former is the opinion of individuals. It is merely)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(subjective and is excluded from policies. The latter is "objective")Tj
0 -26.4 Td(-defined by science and promulgated by expert spokesmen. This objective knowledge is viewed as a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(commodity which can be refined, constantly improved, accumulated and fed into a process, now)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(called "decision-making." This new mythology of governance by the manipulation of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(knowledge-stock inevitably erodes reliance on government by people.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The world does not contain any information. It is as it is. Information about it is created in the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(organism through its interaction with the world. To speak about storage of information outside the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(human body is to fall into a semantic trap. Books or computers are part of the world. They can yield)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(information when they are looked upon. We move the problem of learning and of cognition nicely)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(into the blind spot of our intellectual vision if we confuse vehicles for potential information with)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(information itself. We do the same when we confuse data for potential decision with decision itself.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Overconfidence in "better knowledge" becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy. People first cease to trust)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(their own judgment and then want to be told the truth about what they know. Overconfidence in)Tj
0 -13.2 Td("better decision-making" first hampers people's ability to decide for themselves and then undermines)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(their belief that they can decide.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The growing impotence of people to decide for themselves affects the structure of their expectations.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(People are transformed from contenders for scarce resources into competitors for abundant promises.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Adjudication by ordeal is replaced by recourse to secular rituals. These rituals are organized as)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(frenzied consumption of the offerings of some menu: a curriculum, a therapy, or a court case. The)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(promise that science will provide affluence for all and for each according to his objectively verified)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(merits deprives personal conflict of its creative legitimacy. People who have unlearned how to decide)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(about their own rights on their own evidence become pawns in a world game operated by)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(mega-machines. No longer can each person make his or her own contribution to the constant renewal)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of society. Recourse to better knowledge produced by science not only voids personal decisions of the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(power to contribute to an ongoing historical and social process, it also destroys the rules of evidence)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(by which experience is traditionally shared. The knowledge-consumer depends on getting packaged)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(programs funneled into him. He finds security in the expectation that his neighbor and his boss have)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(seen the same programs and read the same columns. The procedure by which personal certainties are)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(honestly exchanged is eroded by the increasing recourse to exceptionally qualified knowledge)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(produced by a science, profession, or political party. Mothers poison their children on the adman's or)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the M.D.'s advice. Even in the courtroom and in parliament, scientific hearsay-well hidden under the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(veil of expert testimony-biases juridical and political decisions. Judges, governments, and voters)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(abdicate their own evidence about the necessity of resolving conflicts in a situation of defined and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(permanent scarcity and opt for further growth on the basis of data which they admittedly cannot fully)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(understand.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(When communities have grown overconfident in science, they leave it to experts to set the upper)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(limits on growth. This mandate rests on a fallacy. Experts can define standards at levels slightly below)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(those at which people complain with too much force. They can keep the public sullen and forestall)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(mutiny. But closed peer groups cannot be entrusted with self-restraint in furthering their expert)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(knowledge. Nor can we expect them to be representative of the common man. Scientific expertise)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(cannot define what people will tolerate. No person can abdicate the right to decide on this for himself.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(It is, of course,)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( possible)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( to experiment on humans. Nazi doctors explored what the organism can)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(endure. They found out how long the average person can survive torture, but this did not tell them)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(anything about what someone can tolerate. These doctors were condemned under a statute signed in)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Nuremberg two days after Hiroshima and the day before the bomb was dropped on Nagasaki.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(What a population will endure remains beyond experiment. We can tell what happens to particular)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(groups of people under extreme circumstances--in prison, on an expedition, or in an experiment.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Such precedents cannot serve as measures for the privations which a society will tolerate as a result of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(tools or rules made for its service. Scientific measurements may suggest that a certain endeavor)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(threatens a major balance of life. Only the informed judgment of a majority of prudent men who act)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(on the much more complex basis of everyday evidence can determine how to limit individual and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(social goals. Science can clarify the dimensions of man's realm in the universe. Only a political)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(community can dialectically choose the dimensions of the roof under which its members will live.)Tj
0 -66 Td(2.)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( The Rediscovery of Language)Tj
/F4 11 Tf 0 -26.4 Td(Between 1830 and 1850 a dozen inventors formulated the law of the conservation of energy. Most of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(them were engineers, and independently from each other they redefined the floating life force of the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(universe in terms of work machines could perform. Measurements that could be taken in the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(laboratory became the scale by which the mysterious cosmic nexus--called)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( vis viva)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( for)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(centuries--could henceforth be defined.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(During the same period industry successfully competed with other modes of production for the first)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(time. Industrial performance became the scale according to which human effectiveness in the entire)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(economy was now measured. Housework, farming, handicraft, and subsistence activities ranging from)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the making of preserves to the self-building of a home began to be viewed as subsidiary or)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(second-rate forms of production. The industrial mode first degraded and later paralyzed the nexus of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(productive relationships which coexisted in society.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(This monopoly of one mode of production over all social relations is much more profound than the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(competition of firms which overshadows it. In the surface competition the winner is easily recognized)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(as the more capital-intensive factory, the better-organized business, the more exploitative and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(better-protected branch of industry, the corporation that sheds diseconomies the most unobtrusively)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(or produces for war. On a broad scale this race takes the form of a competition among multinational)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(corporations and industrializing nation-states. But this deadly game among giants diverts attention)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(from the ritual service which the game itself renders to the contestants. As the arena of the contest)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(expands, an industrial structure is imposed on world society. The mode of corporate production)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(establishes a radical monopoly not only over resources and tools but also over the imagination and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(motivational structure of people. Political systems compete to baptize the same expanding industrial)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(structure into opposing creeds, without recognizing that it is beyond their control. The convergence of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(corporate monopolies on the deep structural level of society can be called the industrialization of man.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(This trend must be inverted if people are to be free. But the industrial corruption of language itself)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(makes this issue terribly difficult to formulate.)Tj
/F8 11 Tf 143.742 655.6 Td(Ivan Illich - Tools For Conviviality)Tj
295.026 -709 Td(55)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(Language reflects the monopoly of the industrial mode of production over perception and motivation.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(The tongues of industrial nations identify the fruits of creative work and of human labor with the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(outputs of industry. The materialization of consciousness is reflected in Western languages. Schools)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(operate by the slogan "education!" while ordinary language asks what children "learn." The functional)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(shift from verb to noun highlights the corresponding impoverishment of the social imagination.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(People who speak a nominalist language habitually express proprietary relationships to)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( work)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( which)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(they)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( have.)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( All over Latin America only the salaried employees, whether workers or bureaucrats, say)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(that they)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( have)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( work; peasants say that they)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( do)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( it:)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( "Van a trabajar, pero no tienen trabajo.")Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( Those who)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(have been modernized and unionized expect industries to produce not only more goods but also more)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(work for more people. Not only what men do but also what men want is designated by a noun.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td("Housing" designates a commodity rather than an activity. People acquire knowledge, mobility, even)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(sensitivity or health. They)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( have)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( not only work or fun but even sex.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(This shift from verb to noun reflects a transformation in the idea of ownership. "Possessing,")Tj
0 -13.2 Td("holding," and "seizing" no longer describe the relationships people can have to corporations, such as)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(systems of schools or highways. Possessive statements made about tools come to mean the ability to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(command their outputs, interest from capital, or merchandise, or some kind of prestige connected with)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(their operation. Fully industrialized man calls his own principally what has been made for him. He)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(says "my education," "my transportation," "my entertainment," "my health" about the commodities he)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(gets from school, car, show business, or doctor. Western languages, and above all English, become)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(almost inseparable from industrial production. Western men might have to learn from other languages)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(that ownership relations can be restructured in a convivial way. For instance, in Micronesian tongues)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(there exist entirely distinct devices to express the relationship I have to my acts \(which can no longer)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(be separated from me\), to my nose \(which can be cut off\), to my relatives \(who were inflicted on me\),)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(to my canoe \(without which I could not be a full man\), to a drink \(which I serve you\), or to the same)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(drink \(which I intend to swallow\).)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(In a society whose language has undergone this shift, predicates come to be stated in terms of a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(commodity and claims in terms of competition for a scarce resource. "I want to learn" is translated)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(into "I want to get an education." The decision to do something is turned into the demand for a stake)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(in the gamble of schooling. "I want to walk" is restated as "I need transportation." The subject in the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(first case designates himself as an actor, and in the second as a consumer. Linguistic change supports)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the expansion of the industrial arena: competition for institutionalized values is reflected in the use of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(nominal language. This competition for shares inevitably takes the form of a game. People gamble for)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(what they perceive as nouns. Of course, that competition can be organized either as a zero-sum game,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(in which one wins when another loses, or as a non-zero-sum game, in which both competitors get)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(more than if either had lost. Compulsory school could be construed as an example of a zero-sum)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(game: there are only winners and losers; by definition school bestows privilege on fewer people than)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(it degrades. An example of the second would be the transition from private to public transport: at least)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(for the time being, more commuters could get faster wherever they want to go.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Conflict does not have to be a competition for scarce commodities. It could also manifest)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(disagreement about which conditions would best remove restraints on autonomous action. Conflict)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(can lead to the creation of new freedom; but this possibility has been obscured by nominalist)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(language. It can create for both parties the right to do, and to do things which by definition are neither)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(commodities nor scarce. Conflict which leads to the right to walk, to participate in shaping society, to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(speak and communicate equally, to live in clean air or to use convivial tools deprives both adversaries)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of some affluence for the sake of an incommensurable gain new liberty.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(In some societies the corruption of language has crippled the political fantasy to the point where the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(difference between a claim to commodities and a right to convivial tools cannot be understood. Limits)Tj
/F8 11 Tf 143.742 682 Td(Ivan Illich - Tools For Conviviality)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(on tools cannot be publicly discussed. Public blindness to urgent issues is not a new phenomenon.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(People for decades refused to open their eyes to the urgency of population control, for example.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Limiting tools for the sake of freedom and conviviality is now such an issue that cannot be raised. A)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(limit on vehicular velocity as a major election issue seems an implausible idea to the rich and an)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(irrelevant idea to the poor. People who are born next to highways cannot imagine a world without)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(speed, and the peasant in the Andes cannot grasp why anyone should travel that fast. A slowdown as)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the condition for good transportation sounds shocking. To recommend limits on tools sounds as)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(deeply obscene today as the recommendation for greater sexual frankness and freedom as a condition)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(for a good marriage law would have sounded a generation ago.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The operating code of industrial tools encroaches on everyday language and reduces the poetic)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(self-affirmation of men to a barely tolerated and marginal protest. The consequent industrialization of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(man can be inverted only if the convivial function of language is recuperated, but with a new level of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(consciousness. Language which is used by a people jointly claiming and asserting each person's right)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(to share in the shaping of the community becomes, so to speak, a second-order tool to clarify the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(relationships of a people to engineered instrumentalities.)Tj
/F6 11 Tf 0 -66 Td(3. The Recovery of Legal Procedure)Tj
/F4 11 Tf 0 -26.4 Td(Support of an ever-expanding productive society has become the overwhelmingly dominant purpose)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of the existing structure of politics and law. The procedure by which people decide what ought to be)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(done has become subservient to the ideology that corporations ought to produce more: more)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(knowledge and decisions, more goods and services. This perversion constitutes the third obstacle to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the translation of the need for a bounded society into actual social process.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Political parties, legislatures, and the juridical system have been consistently used to foster and protect)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the growth of schools, unions, hospitals, and road-systems, not to speak of industries. Gradually, not)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(only the police but even the courts and the legal system itself have come to be thought of as tools)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(made for the service of an industrial state. That they sometimes protect individuals against industrial)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(claims has become an alibi for their habitual service of legitimizing the further concentration of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(power. Along with the idolatry of scientific method and the corruption of language, this progressive)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(loss of confidence in political and legal processes is a major obstacle to retooling society.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(People come to understand that an alternative society is possible by using clear language. They can)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(bring it about by recovering consciousness of the deep structure by which, in their society, decisions)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(are made. Such a structure exists wherever people form a community. Contradictory decisions can be)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the outcome of the same process because the structure can be used to define personal values and also)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(to shore up institutional behavior. But the existence of such conflicting results does not contradict the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(existence of a consistent structure which generates them. People can decide to)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( get)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( an education in)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(school even though they have decided that it would be better to learn something on their own. They)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(can let themselves be taken to a hospital, though they have decided to die at home. Just as cognitive)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(dissonance is a foundation for dialectics, so the simultaneous acceptance of contradictory norms)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(proves the existence of normative procedures.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Public confidence in the existence of shared procedures has been shaken because these procedures are)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(constantly misused. They have become tools to support unlimited production through converging)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(arguments that alternately take a moral, a political, or a legal character. Christian churches preach)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(meekness, charity, and austerity but finance industrial programs; socialists enforce a Stalinist mode of)Tj
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295.026 -709 Td(57)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(production, and the common law has come to favor the firm over the individual. Soon the computer)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(will be used to define at every juncture what should be done for the growth of tools, unless people)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(rediscover that they share a deep commitment to formal procedures by which they can decide how)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(their present major institutions ought to be turned around.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Unless people agree on a process that can be continuously, convivially, and effectively used to control)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(society's tools, the inversion of the present institutional structure cannot be either enacted or, what is)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(more important, precariously maintained. Managers will always re-emerge to increase institutional)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(productivity and capture public support for the better service they promise.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Three objections are usually made whenever law is proposed as a tool for the inversion of society.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(One of them is rather superficial: not everybody can be a lawyer, and so not everybody can operate)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the law on his own. This, of course, is true only to some degree. Parajuridical systems could be set up)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(in particular communities and incorporated into the over-all structure. Much wider scope could be)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(given to alternative mechanisms to allow for greater participation by the nonprofessional, such as)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(mediation, conciliation, and arbitration. But insofar as this objection is valid, it is also irrelevant to my)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(point. The law, as it deals with the regulation of large-scale production agencies, can surely be)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(decentralized, demystified and debureaucratized. But even then some social concerns are, and could)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(for a long time remain, complex and of vast range, demanding corresponding legal tools. Precisely if)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(it is to be used for the negotiating of world-wide proscriptions among large communities, each with)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(its own centuries-old traditions, the law as the process enabling us to regulate these concerns is and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(will remain a tool requiring some experts to operate it. But this does not mean that such experts have)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(to be graduates of a law school, or that they must be members of a closed profession.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The second objection is completely relevant and much more profound: persons who now operate the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(law as a social tool are deeply infected with the myths that pervade a growth society. Their)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(imagination of the possible and of the feasible is determined by the lore of industry. It would be folly)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(to expect the present corporations of social engineers of a utilitarian society to turn into the guardians)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of a convivial one. The critical importance of this observation is complemented and underlined by a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(third objection. The juristic system is not simply a set of written laws; it is a continuing process by)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(which those laws are made and then applied to actual situations. The law is used to impose a given)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(mind-set on all participants. The resulting content of the law embodies the ideologies of lawmakers)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(and judges. How they experience the ideology inherent in a culture becomes established mythology in)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the laws they make and apply. The body of laws that regulates an industrial society inevitably reflects)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(and reinforces its ideology, social character, and class structure. "More" is always in the common)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(good--more power to firms, professions, and parties.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(While this objection does indicate a fundamental difficulty against the use of law in an inversion of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(society, it also misses the point. I carefully distinguish between a body of laws and the purely formal)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(structure by which it is made, just as I have distinguished the use of slogans by which our institutions)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(operate from the use of ordinary language, and as I will later distinguish between policies and formal)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(political process. It is the latter and not the former which are the second order of tools we need, can)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(share, and have to use.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(It is almost impossible to insist strongly enough on the distinction between means and ends in an)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(epoch in which purposes have been reduced to operations, in an epoch in which people raise)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(consciousness, movements pretend to provide "liberation," languages rather than persons are said to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td("speak," and politicians make" revolutions. The law can again serve to highlight the general)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(difference between substance and what might be called not "due process" but rather "due procedure.")Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(Two major complementary features of the common law make its formal structure particularly)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(applicable to the needs which arise in a profound crisis. One is the inherent continuity of the system,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(and the other is its adversary nature. Analogous features can be found in other law systems; I here)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(choose the Anglo-American system of law as an illustration of my more general point.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The continuity built into the lawmaking process does in one sense conserve the substance of a body of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(laws. This is less obvious in the legislative stage. Legislators are free to innovate at their own)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(discretion, as long as they stay within a constitutional framework. But they do also have to fit any new)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(law into the context of existing legislation, and this tends to ensure that new legislation will not vary)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(too widely from the over-all tradition of existing law.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The function of the courts in providing continuity to the substance of the law is more obvious. A court)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(applies existing law to actual situations. Like cases are decided alike, or the facts are found to be of a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(different significance today. The law represents the sovereign authority of the past over the present)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(controversy, the continuity of a dialectic process. The court recognizes the controversy as a social)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(concern and incorporates its resolutions into the body of the law. In the process the social experience)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of the past is readapted to present needs. The present decision will in turn serve as reference in future)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(cases.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The continuity of the formal structure used in this process is of a different order from the continuous)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(embodiment of one set of prejudices in a set of laws. Considered in this formal sense, the system of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(continuity is not designed to preserve the content of any existing set of laws. It could even be used to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(preserve the continuous development of a set of laws that fit an inverted society. There is nothing in)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(most constitutions that prevents the passage of laws setting upper limits to productivity, privilege,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(professional monopoly, or efficiency. In principle, the existing process of legislatures and courts can,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(with a reversal of its focus, make and apply such law.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The adversary nature of the common law is equally important. The common law is not formally)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(concerned with what is ethically or technically good. It is a tool for the understanding of mutualities)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(that surface as actual conflicts. It leaves to those directly concerned with a social interest the task of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(insisting on the protection of their rights or the pursuit of their claims to what they consider to be)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(good. This works in both legislation and jurisprudence; the decision is an act of balancing conflicting)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(interests in a way that is theoretically best for all.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(It is obvious that during the last few generations this balance has been wholly distorted in favor of a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(production-oriented society. But the current misuse of the juristic structure is not a valid argument)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(against its use for precisely the opposite purpose. Interests wholly opposed to such a society, free)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(from the illusion that growth can overcome injustice, and concerned with limits, can in principle use)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the same tool. It is not, of course, sufficient that new types of plaintiffs appear; it is equally true that)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the growth illusions of legislators must fade, and that parties must be brought forward to represent)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(their interest in a reassessment of what are now taken as facts.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Not only the legislative but also the juridical process depends on the presentation of conflicting social)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(interests by interested parties for settlement by disinterested tribunals. These tribunals operate in a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(continuous way. Ideally, judges are ordinary, prudent men or women indifferent to the substance of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the issue they are expected to reconcile, and experts in the application of process. In practice,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(however, tribunals have also come to serve the concentration of power and the increase of industrial)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(production. Not only do judges, like legislators, perceive that a conflict is best balanced when the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(balance is tipped in favor of the over-all interest of corporations, but society has also conditioned the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(plaintiffs always to demand more. A larger share of institutional output constitutes the substance of a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(claim much more frequently than protection against an institution which limits a person's freedom to)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(do something on his own. But this abuse of the formal structure of common law does not corrupt the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(structure itself.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(An objection is frequently raised when adversary procedures are presented as a major tool to oppose)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(industrial growth. Society already heavily relies on such proceedings. Their extension to new areas is)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(continually recommended. Legal reformers tend to provide new weapons to all classes of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(disadvantaged: blacks, Indians, women, employees, cripples. As a result proceedings have become)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(cumbersome, costly, and only a few of the interested parties can come forward. Decisions are often)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(delayed until they have lost their relevance. Role-playing is encouraged, and this often creates new)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(tensions between artificial groups. In going out of the way to create structures so that adversary)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(processes may he used, decisions are made scarce.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(This objection is very relevant if it opposes the proliferation of adversary proceedings in the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(resolution of conflicts between people. But neither the conflict between individuals nor the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(competition between groups is the substance of our issue. The fundamental conflict in society is about)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(acts, facts, and things on which people are opposed to corporations. Formal adversary procedure is the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(paradigmatic tool for citizens to oppose the threat of industry to their basic liberties. This is the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(process suited to the opposition of two partners whom the law has rendered equal, in which the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(aggrieved party is interested in disputing one fact or a relevant law or principle, and considers this)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(issue the only continuing interest he has in common with the other. A group of citizens interested in)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(retooling society is not concerned with negotiations or mediation but with direct opposition to the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(industrial mode of production and its undue expansion in a specific instance.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Like ordinary English, formal process is a convivial tool. Undoubtedly, industrial institutions have)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(entrenched themselves by corrupting the habitual use of these tools by individuals and communities.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Yet language and formal process remain intrinsically distinct from the purposes for which they are)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(used. People can defend language and legal procedure as inherently theirs; they can find in their)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(inalienable natures the confidence to use their unchanged formal structures to express contents)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(entirely opposed to those for which they were taught to use them in their childhood. The formal)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(structure of law still offers a process by which the ordinary citizen can present to society his own)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(practical interest in conflict with the interest of a corporation, even when this corporation is an agency)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of the state, and even if this interest favors or opposes any functioning or proposed program.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(It would be absurd to expect that professionals who are experts in the corrupt use of language or of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(law could suddenly think clearly and proceed rightly. Educators who are aware of the breakdown of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(schools usually engage in a frantic search for advice that permits them to teach more people about)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(more things. Doctors tend to believe that at least some of the generally useful knowledge they hold)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(cannot be expressed outside their hieratic code. It is useless to expect the American Medical)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Association, the National Education Association, or the association of traffic engineers to explain in)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(ordinary language the professional gangsterism of their colleagues. It would be equally fruitless to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(count on present legislators, lawyers, and judges to recognize the independence of what is right from)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the preconceived good, which for them is identical with the higher output of goods by corporations.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(They are trained to adjust any conflict in favor of over-all industrial growth. But just as an)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(exceptional doctor here and there helps people live responsibly, to suffer as a matter of fact, and to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(face death, so an exceptional lawyer can help people use the formal structure of the law to represent)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(their interest in a convivial society. Even though he will probably be frustrated in his claims, he can)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(use the courtroom drama to make his point.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Legal procedure applied to a society filled by optimism about its expanding tools has turned into the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(most effective instrument for the social control of people at the service of these tools. To advance an)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(industrial society, the law is systematically used for social engineering and the continually more)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(complete and effective elimination of waste and friction in the mega-machine. Anglo-American)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(industry has consistently been more successful, in the long run, than the industry of socialist)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(countries. Law is more effective than centralized planning in bringing and keeping people under the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(rule of machines. Yet the current misuse of the juristic structure is not a valid argument against its use)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(for precisely the opposite purpose, though it suggests caution against overly optimistic hopes for such)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(an inverted use.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Most of the present laws and present legislators, most of the present courts and their decisions, most)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of the claimants and their demands are deeply corrupted by an overarching industrial consensus: that)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(more is better, and that corporations serve the public interest better than men. But this entrenched)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(consensus does not invalidate my thesis that any revolution which neglects the use of formal legal and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(political procedures will fail. Only an active majority in which all individuals and groups insist for)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(their own reasons on their own rights, and whose members share the same convivial procedure, can)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(recover the rights of men against corporations.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The use of procedure for the purpose of hampering, stopping, and inverting our major institutions will)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(appear to their managers and addicts as a misuse of the law and as subversion of the only order which)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(they recognize. The use of due convivial procedure appears corrupt and criminal to the bureaucrat,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(even one who calls himself a judge.)Tj
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/F5 19 Tf 218.638 678.992 Td 0.000 Tc(V)Tj
/F5 15.8 Tf -54.962 -32.842 Td(Political Inversion)Tj
/F4 11 Tf -163.676 -53.768 Td(If within the very near future man cannot set limits to the interference of his tools with the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(environment and practice effective birth control, the next generations will experience the gruesome)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(apocalypse predicted by many ecologists. Faced with these impending disasters, society can stand in)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(wait of survival within limits set and enforced by bureaucratic dictatorship. Or it can engage in a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(political process by the use of legal and political procedures. Ideologically biased interpretations of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the past have made the recognition of political process increasingly difficult. Liberty has been)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(interpreted as a right to power tools, a right claimed without reasonable limitation by individuals and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(private associations in capitalist countries and by the state in socialist societies. Recovery becomes)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(feasible only if the fundamental structure of Western societies is clearly recognized and reclaimed.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Analogous efforts to recover entirely different formal structures will become necessary when former)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(political or cultural colonies shake off the Western mode of production.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The bureaucratic management of human survival is unacceptable on both ethical and political)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(grounds. It would also be as futile as former attempts at mass therapy. This does not, of course, mean)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(that a majority might not at first submit to it. People could be so frightened by the increasing evidence)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of growing population and dwindling resources that they would voluntarily put their destiny into the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(hands of Big Brothers. Technocratic caretakers could be mandated to set limits on growth in every)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(dimension, and to set them just at the point beyond which further production would mean utter)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(destruction. Such a)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( kakotopia)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( could maintain the industrial age at the highest endurable level of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(output.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Man would live in a plastic bubble that would protect his survival and make it increasingly worthless.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Since man's tolerance would become the most serious limitation to growth, the alchemist's endeavor)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(would be renewed in the attempt to produce a monstrous type of man fit to live among reason's)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(dreams. A major function of engineering would become the psychogenetic tooling of man himself as)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(a condition for further growth. People would be confined from birth to death in a world-wide)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(schoolhouse, treated in a world-wide hospital, surrounded by television screens, and the man-made)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(environment would be distinguishable in name only from a world-wide prison.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The alternative to managerial fascism is a political process by which people decide how much of any)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(scarce resource is the most any member of society can claim; a process in which they agree to keep)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(limits relatively stationary over a long time, and by which they set a premium on the constant search)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(for new ways to have an ever larger percentage of the population join in doing ever more with ever)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(less. Such a political choice of a frugal society remains a pious dream unless it can be shown that it is)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(not only necessary but also possible: \(1\) to define concrete procedures by which more people are)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(enlightened about the nature of our present crisis and will come to understand that limits are necessary)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(and a convivial life style desirable; \(2\) to bring the largest number of people into now suppressed)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(organizations which claim their right to a frugal life style and keep them satisfied and therefore)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(committed to convivial life; and \(3\) to discover and revalue the political or legal tools that are)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(accepted within a society and learn how to use them to establish and protect convivial life where it)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(emerges. Such procedures may sound idealistic at the present moment. This is not proof that they)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(cannot become effective as the present crisis deepens.)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 660.6 Td 0.000 Tc(1.)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( Myths and Majorities)Tj
/F4 11 Tf 0 -26.4 Td(The ultimate obstacle to the restructuring of society is not the lack of information about which limits)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(are needed, nor the lack of people who would accept them if they became inevitable, but the power of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(political myths.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Almost everyone in rich societies is a destructive consumer. Almost everyone is, in some way,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(engaged in aggression against the milieu. Destructive consumers constitute a numerical majority.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Myth transforms them into a political one. Numerical majorities come to form a mythical voting bloc)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(on a nonexistent issue; "they" are invoked as the unbeatable guardians of vested interest in growth.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(This mythical majority paralyzes political action. At closer inspection, "they" are a number of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(reasonable individuals. One is an ecologist who takes a jet plane to a conference on protecting the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(environment from further pollution. Another is an economist who knows that growing efficiency)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(renders work increasingly scarce; he tries to create new sources of employment. Neither of them has)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the same interests as the slum-dweller in Detroit who purchases his color TV on time. The three)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(belong no more to a voting bloc that will defend growth than clerks, repairmen, and salesmen are)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(somehow politically homogenized because each fears for his job, needs a car, and wants medicine for)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(his children.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(There can be no such thing as a majority opposed to an issue that has not arisen. A majority agitating)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(for limits to growth is as ludicrous a concept as one demanding growth at all cost. Majorities are not)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(created by shared ideologies. They develop out of enlightened self-interest. The most that even the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(best of ideologies can do is interpret this interest. The stance each man or woman takes when a social)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(problem becomes an overwhelming threat depends on two factors: the first is how a smoldering)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(conflict erupts into a political issue demanding attention and partisan action; the second is the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(existence of new \351lites which can provide an interpretative framework for new-and hitherto)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(unexpected-alignments of interest.)Tj
0 -66 Td(2.)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( From Breakdown to Chaos)Tj
/F4 11 Tf 0 -26.4 Td(I can only conjecture on how the breakdown of industrial society will ultimately become a critical)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(issue. But I can make rather firm statements about the qualifications for providing guidance within the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(coming crisis. I believe that growth will grind to a halt. The total collapse of the industrial monopoly)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(on production will be the result of synergy in the failure of the multiple systems that fed its expansion.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(This expansion is maintained by the illusion that careful systems engineering can stabilize and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(harmonize present growth, while in fact it pushes all institutions simultaneously toward their second)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(watershed. Almost overnight people will lose confidence not only in the major institutions but also in)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the miracle prescriptions of the would-be crisis managers. The ability of present institutions to define)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(values such as education, health, welfare, transportation, or news will suddenly be extinguished)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(because it will be recognized as an illusion.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(This crisis may be triggered by an unforeseen event, as the Great Depression was touched off by the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Wall Street Crash. Some fortuitous coincidence will render publicly obvious the structural)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(contradictions between stated purposes and effective results in our major institutions. People will)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(suddenly find obvious what is now evident to only a few: that the organization of the entire economy)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(toward the "better" life has become the major enemy of the)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( good)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( life. Like other widely shared)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(insights, this one will have the potential of turning public imagination inside out. Large institutions)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(can quite suddenly lose their respectability, their legitimacy, and their reputation for serving the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(public good. It happened to the Roman Church in the Reformation, to Royalty in the Revolution. The)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(unthinkable became obvious overnight: that people could and would behead their rulers.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Sudden change is of a different order than feedback or evolution. Observe the whirlpools below a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(waterfall. For many seasons the eddies stay in the same place no matter whether the water is high or)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(low. Then, suddenly, one more stone falls into the basin, the entire array changes, and the old can)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(never be reconstructed. People who invoke the specter of a hopelessly growth-oriented majority seem)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(incapable of envisaging political behavior in a crash. Business ceases to be as usual when the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(populace loses confidence in industrial productivity, and not just in paper currency.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(It is still possible to face the breakdown of each of our various systems in a separate perspective. No)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(remedy seems to work, but we can still find resources to support every remedy proposed.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Governments think they can deal with the breakdown of utilities, the disruption of the educational)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(system, intolerable transportation, the chaos of the judicial process, the violent disaffection of the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(young. Each is dealt with as a separate phenomenon, each is explained by a different report, each calls)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(for a new tax and a new program. Squabbles about alternative remedies give credibility to both: free)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(schools vs. public schools double the demand for education; satellite cities vs. monorails for)Tj
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0 -13.2 Td(more paramedical professions further aggrandize the health professions. Since each of the proposed)Tj
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0 -13.2 Td(make the pie grow, and to forget that it is pie in the sky.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The Coolidge approach to the warnings of the Depression is now applied to the signs of a much more)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(radical crisis. General systems analysis is trusted to relate the institutional breakdowns to each other,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(which only leads to more planning, centralization, and bureaucracy in order to achieve control over)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(population, affluence, and inefficient industry. Unemployment in the manufacturing sector is)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(supposed to be compensated for by growth in the output of decisions, controls, and therapies.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Fascination with industry and mechanical production still blinds people to the possibility of a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(postindustrial society in which several distinct modes of production would complement each other.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Trying to bring about an era which is both hyperindustrial and ecologically feasible, they accelerate)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the breakdown of several other non-physical and equally fundamental dimensions of the balance of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(life.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(It would be a mere exercise in geomancy to predict which series of events will play the role of the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Wall Street Crash as catalyst of the first crisis of, not just in, industrial society. But it would be folly)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(not to expect in the very near future an event whose effects will jam the growth of tools. When this)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(happens, the noise that accompanies the crash will distract attention from seeing it in proper)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(perspective.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(We still have a chance to understand the causes of the coming crisis, and to prepare for it. If we are to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(anticipate its effects, we must investigate how sudden change can bring about the emergence into)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(power of previously submerged social groups. It is not calamity as such that creates these groups; it is)Tj
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0 -13.2 Td(which have excluded the submerged from participation in the social process. It is the power of)Tj
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0 -26.4 Td(When controls are weakened, those accustomed to control must seek new allies. In the weakened)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(economic-industrial state of the Great Depression, the establishment could not do without organized)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(labor, so organized labor got its share of power within the structure. In the weakened labor market)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(during the Second World War, industry could not do without black labor. The blacks began to assert)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(their power.)Tj
0 -66 Td(3.)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( Insight into Crisis)Tj
/F4 11 Tf 0 -26.4 Td(Forces tending to limit production are already at work within society. Public, counterfoil research can)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(significantly help these individuals become more cohesive and self-conscious in their indictment of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(growth they consider destructive. We can anticipate that their voices will acquire new resonance when)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the crisis of overproductive society becomes acute. They form no constituency, but they are)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(spokesmen for a majority of which everyone is a potential member. The more unexpectedly the crisis)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(comes, the more suddenly their velleities can turn into a program. But the ability to direct events at)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(that moment depends on how well these minorities grasp the profound nature of the crisis, and know)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(how to state it in effective language: to declare what they want, what they can do, and what they do)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(not need. The critical use of ordinary language is the first pivot in a political inversion. A second pivot)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(is needed.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Further growth must lead to a multiple catastrophe. That people would accept multiple limits to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(growth without catastrophe seems highly improbable. The inevitable catastrophic event could be)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(either a crisis in civilization or its end: end by annihilation or end in B. F. Skinner's world-wide)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(concentration camp run by a T. E. Frazier. The foreseeable catastrophe will be a true crisis--that is,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the occasion for a choice--only if at the moment it strikes the necessary social demands can be)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(effectively expressed. They must be represented by people who can demonstrate that the breakdown)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of the current industrial illusion is for them a condition for choosing an effective and convivial mode)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of production. The preparation of such groups is the key task of new politics at the present moment.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(I have already argued that these groups must be prepared to provide a logically coherent analysis of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the catastrophic event and to communicate it in ordinary language. I have argued that they must be)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(prepared to propose the necessity for a bounded society in practical terms that have general appeal.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Sacrifice must be shown as the inevitable price for different groups of people to get what they)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(want-or at least to be liberated from what has become intolerable. But beyond using words to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(describe the limits as both necessary and appealing, the leadership of these groups must be prepared)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(to use a social tool that is fit to ordain what is good enough for all. It must be a tool which, like)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(language, is respected by all; a tool which, like language, does not lose its power because of the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(purpose to which it has been put in recent history; a tool which, like language, possesses a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(fundamental structure that misuse cannot totally corrupt.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(I have already argued that such a tool can only be the formal structure of politics and law. At the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(moment of the crash which is industrial rather than simply financial, the transformation of catastrophe)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(into crisis depends on the confidence an emerging group of clear-thinking and feeling people can)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(inspire in their peers. They must then argue that the transition to a convivial society can be, and must)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(be, the result of conscious use of disciplined procedure that recognizes the legitimacy of conflicting)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(interests, the historical precedent out of which the conflict arose, and the necessity of abiding by the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(decision of peers. Convivially used procedure guarantees that an institutional revolution will remain a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(tool whose goals emerge as they are enacted; the conscious use of procedure in a continually)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(antibureaucratic sense is the only possible protection against the revolution itself becoming an)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(institution. Whether the application of this procedure to the inversion of all major institutions of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(society is then called a cultural revolution, or the recuperation of the formal structure of law, or)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(participatory socialism or a return to the spirit of the)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( Fueros de Espana,)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( is merely a matter of labeling.)Tj
0 -66 Td(4.)Tj
/F6 11 Tf ( Sudden Change)Tj
/F4 11 Tf 0 -26.4 Td(When I speak about emerging interest groups and their preparation, I am not speaking of action)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(groups, or of a church, or of new kinds of experts. I am above all not speaking about one political)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(party which could assume power at a moment of crisis. Management of the crisis would make)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(catastrophe irreversible. A well-knit, well-trained party can establish its power at the moment of a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(crisis in which the choice to be made is one within an over-all system. Such was the Great)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Depression. What was at issue was control over the tools of production. Such were the events which)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(brought the Marxists to power in Eastern Europe. But the crisis I have described as imminent is not a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(crisis within industrial society, but a crisis of the industrial mode of production itself. The crisis I have)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(described confronts people with a choice between convivial tools and being crushed by machines. The)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(only response to this crisis is a full recognition of its depth and an acceptance of inevitable)Tj
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0 -13.2 Td(and the more disparate the interests that may be protected only by a reduction of power within society,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the greater the probability that the inevitable will be recognized as such.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(I am also not speaking about a majority opposed to growth on some abstract principles. Such a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(majority is unfeasible. A well-organized \351lite, vocally promulgating an antigrowth orthodoxy, is)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(indeed conceivable. It is probably now forming. But such a programmatic antigrowth \351lite would be)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(highly undesirable. By pushing people to accept limits to industrial output without questioning the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(basic industrial structure of modern society, it would inevitably provide more power to the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(growth-optimizing bureaucrats and become their pawn. One of the first results of transition toward a)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(stable-state industrial economy would be the development of a labor-intensive, highly disciplined,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(and growing subsector of production that would control people by giving them jobs. Such a stabilized)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(production of highly rationalized and standardized goods and services would be--if this were)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(possible-even further away from convivial production than the industrial-growth society we have)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(now.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The proponents of a bounded society have no need to put together some kind of majority. A voting)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(majority in a democracy is not motivated by the explicit commitment of all its members to some)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(specific ideology or to some particular value. A voting majority in favor of a specific institutional)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(limitation would have to be composed of very disparate elements: those seriously aggrieved by some)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(aspect of overproduction, those who do not profit from it, and those who may have objections to the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(over-all organization of society--but not directly to the specific limit being set. How this functions in)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(times of normal politics can be well illustrated by the example of school. Some people are childless)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(and resent the school tax. Others feel they are taxed more heavily and served less well than their peers)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(in another district. Others object to tax support of schools since they want to send their children to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(parochial schools. Others object to compulsory schooling as such: some because it does harm to the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(young and others because it fosters discrimination. All these people could form a voting majority, but)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(not a party or a sect. Under present circumstances they might succeed in cutting school down to size,)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(but thereby they would merely assure its more legitimate survival. A majority vote to limit one major)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(institution tends to be conservative when business is as usual.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(But a majority can have the contrary effect in a crisis which affects society on a deeper level. The)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(joint arrival of several institutions at their second watershed is the beginning of such a crisis. The)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(crash that will follow must make it clear that industrial society as such--and not just its separate)Tj
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/F4 11 Tf 0 687 Td 0.000 Tc(institutions--has outgrown the range of its effectiveness.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The nation-state has become so powerful that it cannot per-form its stated functions. Just as General)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(Vo Nguyen Giap could use the U.S. military machine to win his war, so the multinational)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(corporations and professions can now use the law and the two-party system to establish their empire.)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(But while democracy in the United States can survive a victory by Giap, it cannot survive one by ITT)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(and its like. As a total crisis approaches, it becomes more obvious that the nation-state has grown into)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the holding corporation for a multiplicity of self-serving tools, and the political party into an)Tj
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/F6 11 Tf ( individual)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( consumption and to)Tj
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/F6 11 Tf ( industrial)Tj
/F4 11 Tf ( consumption. People can claim cars, but the appropriation)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(of society's over-all resources by a transportation system which determines that cars are useful is left)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(to the decision of experts. Such parties support a state whose only purpose is the support of an)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(increasing GNP, and they are obviously useless at the moment of a general crash.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(When business is normal, the procedural opposition between corporations and clients usually)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(heightens the legitimacy of the latter's dependence. But at the moment of a structural crisis not even)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the voluntary reduction of overefficiency on the part of major institutions will keep any of them)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(functioning. A general crisis opens the way t6 social reconstruction. The loss of legitimacy of the state)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(as a holding corporation does not destroy, but reasserts, the need for constitutional procedure. The)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(loss of confidence in parties that have become stockholders' factions brings Out the importance of)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(adversary procedures in politics. A loss of credibility of opposing claims for more individual)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(consumption only highlights the importance of the use of adversary procedures when the issue to be)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(decided upon is the reconciliation of opposing sets of society-wide limitations. The same general)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(crisis that could easily lead to one-man rule, expert government, and ideological orthodoxy is also the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(great opportunity to reconstruct a political process in which all participate.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(The structures of political and legal procedures are integral to one another. Both shape and express the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(structure of freedom in history. If this is recognized, the framework of due procedure can be used as)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(the most dramatic, symbolic, and convivial tool in the political area. The appeal to law remains)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(powerful even where society makes access to legal machinery a privilege, or where it systematically)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(denies justice, or where it cloaks despotism in the mantle of show tribunals. Even when he who)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(upholds the formal structure of ordinary language and procedure earns the scorn, ridicule, and)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(persecution of his fellow revolutionaries, the appeal of an individual to the formal structure embedded)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(in a people's history remains the most powerful instrument to say the truth and denounce the)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(cancerous domination of the industrial dominance over production as the ultimate form of idolatry. I)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(feel almost unbearable anguish when faced by the fact that only the word recovered from history)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(should be left to us as the power for stemming disaster. Yet only the word in its weakness can)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(associate the majority of people in the revolutionary inversion of inevitable violence into convivial)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(reconstruction.)Tj
0 -26.4 Td(Reconstruction for poor countries means adopting a set of negative design criteria within which their)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(tools are kept, in order to advance directly into a postindustrial era of conviviality. The limits to)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(choose are of the same order as those which hyperindustrialized countries will have to adopt for the)Tj
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0 -13.2 Td(by a high-powered army, both because the maintenance of such an army would foil reconstruction)Tj
0 -13.2 Td(and because no such army would be powerful enough. Defense of conviviality is possible only if)Tj
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