“What plans are like depends on how they are used. The plan-as-program view gives plans a central role. Plan use is only a matter of execution. Plans-as-programs directly determine their users’ actions.

The plan-as-communication view gives plans a much smaller role. It requires an account of improvisation. An agent who does use a plan-as-communication does not mechanically execute it. Instead, the agent uses the plan as one resource among others in continually redeciding what to do. The mindset is of participating in the world, not controlling it.